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Outline of forestry

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The Canadian Forest Service (CFS; French: Service canadien des forêts) is a sector of the Canadian government department of Natural Resources Canada. Part of the federal government since 1899, the CFS is a science-based policy organization responsible for promoting the sustainable development of Canada's forests and competitiveness of the forest sector to benefit present and future Canadians. Some of the research areas that the CFS is involved in include; forest fire, climate change, silviculture, soils, insects and disease, remote sensing and forest management. Since 1991 the sector has produced an annual report, The State of the Forest in Canada [1], which describes the status of the nation's forests and the forest industry. (Full article...) Turpentine (which is also called spirit of turpentine, oil of turpentine, terebenthine, terebenthene, terebinthine and, colloquially, turps) is a fluid obtained by the distillation of resin harvested from living trees, mainly pines. Principally used as a specialized solvent, it is also a source of material for organic syntheses. Turpentine is composed of terpenes, primarily the monoterpenes alpha- and beta-pinene, with lesser amounts of carene, camphene, limonene, and terpinolene. Substitutes include white spirit or other petroleum distillates – although the constituent chemicals are very different. (Full article...) Tar is a dark brown or black viscous liquid of hydrocarbons and free carbon, obtained from a wide variety of organic materials through destructive distillation. Tar can be produced from coal, wood, petroleum, or peat. Mineral products resembling tar can be produced from fossil hydrocarbons, such as petroleum. Coal tar is produced from coal as a byproduct of coke production. (Full article...) Cut-to-length logging (CTL) is a mechanized harvesting system in which trees are delimbed and cut to length directly at the stump. CTL is typically a two-man, two-machine operation with a harvester felling, delimbing, and bucking trees and a forwarder transporting the logs from the felling to a landing area close to a road accessible by trucks. The capital costs for a typical CTL operation, with one harvester and one forwarder, are quite high. The price of a pair of machines alone are approx. US$1,000,000. CTL is the primary logging method in European countries, while full-tree logging and the even older technique of tree-length logging are more popular in North America and less developed countries, where tree sizes can exceed the capacity of the harvester's felling head, i.e., tree stems with a butt diameter of over 90 centimeters. CTL lends itself to timber harvesting in plantation forestry where stems are often harvested before they reach large dimensions. (Full article...) Variable retention is a relatively new silvicultural system that retains forest structural elements for at least one rotation in order to preserve environmental values associated with structurally complex forests. Some examples for environmental values are forest cover connectivity, soil stabilization, microclimate under retained trees, habitats associated with live or dead trees and species diversity due to habitat preservation, and wildlife corridor preservation. Variable retention also aids in emulation of natural disturbances by leaving behind some residual structure from previous stand which is typical for stand replacing disturbances Traditional silviculture systems such as clearcut, patch cut, shelterwood, etc. are focused on maximizing timber production and future regeneration of the trees. Variable retention on the other hand is focused on what is retained (Full article...) Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings, generally for forestry, land reclamation, or landscaping purposes. It differs from the transplantation of larger trees in arboriculture and from the lower-cost but slower and less reliable distribution of tree seeds. Trees contribute to their environment over long periods of time by providing oxygen, improving air quality, climate amelioration, conserving water, preserving soil, and supporting wildlife. During the process of photosynthesis, trees take in carbon dioxide and produce the oxygen we breathe. In silviculture, the activity is known as "reforestation", or "afforestation," depending on whether the area being planted has recently been forested or not. It involves planting seedlings over an area of land where the forest has been harvested or damaged by fire, disease, or human activity. Tree planting is carried out in many different parts of the world, and strategies may differ widely across nations and regions and among individual reforestation companies. Tree planting is grounded in forest science and, if performed properly, can result in the successful regeneration of a deforested area. Reforestation is the commercial logging industry's answer to the large-scale destruction of old-growth forests, but a planted forest rarely replicates the biodiversity and complexity of a natural forest. Because trees remove carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, tree planting can be used to help limit climate change. Desert greening projects are also motivated by improved biodiversity and reclamation of natural water systems, as well as improved economic and social welfare due to an increased number of jobs in farming and forestry. (Full article...) Cellulosic ethanol is ethanol (ethyl alcohol) produced from cellulose (the stringy fiber of a plant) rather than from the plant's seeds or fruit. It can be produced from grasses, wood, algae, or other plants. It is generally discussed for use as a biofuel. The carbon dioxide that plants absorb as they grow offsets some of the carbon dioxide emitted when ethanol made from them is burned, so cellulosic ethanol fuel has the potential to have a lower carbon footprint than fossil fuels. Interest in cellulosic ethanol is driven by its potential to replace ethanol made from corn or sugarcane. Since these plants are also used for food products, diverting them for ethanol production can cause food prices to rise; cellulose-based sources, on the other hand, generally do not compete with food, since the fibrous parts of plants are mostly inedible to humans. Another potential advantage is the high diversity and abundance of cellulose sources; grasses, trees and algae are found in almost every environment on Earth. Even municipal solid waste components like paper could conceivably be made into ethanol. The main current disadvantage of cellulosic ethanol is its high cost of production, which is more complex and requires more steps than corn-based or sugarcane-based ethanol. Cellulosic ethanol received significant attention in the 2000s and early 2010s. The United States government in particular funded research into its commercialization and set targets for the proportion of cellulosic ethanol added to vehicle fuel. A large number of new companies specializing in cellulosic ethanol, in addition to many existing companies, invested in pilot-scale production plants. However, the much cheaper manufacturing of grain-based ethanol, along with the low price of oil in the 2010s, meant that cellulosic ethanol was not competitive with these established fuels. As a result, most of the new refineries were closed by the mid-2010s and many of the newly founded companies became insolvent. A few still exist, but are mainly used for demonstration or research purposes; as of 2021, none produces cellulosic ethanol at scale. (Full article...) Growth and yield modelling is a branch of financial management. This method of modelling is also known as the Gordon constant growth model. In this method the cost of equity share capital is found by determining the sum of yield percentage and growth percentage.' ('Full article...) Ecological yield is the harvestable population growth of an ecosystem. It is most commonly measured in forestry: sustainable forestry is defined as that which does not harvest more wood in a year than has grown in that year, within a given patch of forest. However, the concept is also applicable to water, soil, and any other aspect of an ecosystem which can be both harvested and renewed—called renewable resources. The carrying capacity of an ecosystem is reduced over time if more than the amount which is "renewed" (refreshed or regrown or rebuilt) is consumed. Ecosystem services analysis calculates the global yield of the Earth's biosphere to humans as a whole. This is said to be greater in size than the entire human economy. However, it is more than just yield, but also the natural processes that increase biodiversity and conserve habitat which result in the total value of these services. "Yield" of ecological commodities like wood or water, useful to humans, is only a part of it. Very often an ecological yield in one place offsets an ecological load in another. Greenhouse gas released in one place, for instance, is fairly evenly distributed in the atmosphere, and so greenhouse gas control can be achieved by creating a carbon sink literally anywhere else. (Full article...) Conservation biology is the study of the conservation of nature and of Earth's biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic interactions. It is an interdisciplinary subject drawing on natural and social sciences, and the practice of natural resource management. The conservation ethic is based on the findings of conservation biology. (Full article...) Resource Extraction Monitoring (REM) is a non-profit organisation that provides independent monitoring to ensure that laws relating to the extraction of natural resources are enforced. It was founded in 2003 by experts with over 15 years of monitoring experience. The head office is in the UK, with local offices in countries where major projects are taking place. The organisation bridges the gap between governments, environmental and human rights NGOs and local communities, donors and the private sector by providing objective and timely information on natural resource allocation and use. REM is not a lobbying organisation and has no political agenda, but is pro-active in researching and presenting the issue of governance and transparency during project implementation. (Full article...) Smokejumpers are specially trained wildland firefighters who provide an initial attack response on remote wildfires. They are inserted at the site of the fire by parachute. This allows firefighters to access remote fires in their early stages without needing to hike long distances carrying equipment and supplies. Traditional terrestrial crews can use only what they can carry and often require hours and days to reach fire on foot. The benefits of smokejumping include the speed at which firefighters can reach a burn site, the broad range of fires a single crew can reach by aircraft, and the larger equipment payloads that can be delivered to a fire compared to pedestrian crews. Once arrived on site, smokejumpers utilize similar strategies to hotshot crews and terrestrial crews to extinguish fires. Primarily, firefighters use axes to dig trenches around the fire's perimeter to isolate the flames from further fuel sources - nearby trees and shrubs. By tilling the newly exposed soil, the firefighters limit available material for the fire and it slowly burns itself out. If necessary, crews will supervise the fire overnight, and churn the ash in the morning to effectively put out any remaining embers. Once the fires are deemed thoroughly extinguished, smokejumpers retrieve the equipment and hike to the nearest clearing to be collected by helicopter. Only three countries currently house smokejumpers: Russia, Canada, and the United States. These countries often coordinate exchange programs in which smokejumpers travel to aid in intense wildfire seasons. In addition to performing the initial attack on wildfires, they may also provide leadership for extended attacks on wildland fires. Shortly after smokejumpers touch ground, they are supplied by parachute with food, water, and firefighting tools, making them self-sufficient for 48 hours. Smokejumpers are usually on duty from early spring through late fall. (Full article...) In botany, a tree is a perennial plant with an elongated stem, or trunk, usually supporting branches and leaves. In some usages, the definition of a tree may be narrower, including only woody plants with secondary growth, plants that are usable as lumber or plants above a specified height. In wider definitions, the taller palms, tree ferns, bananas, and bamboos are also trees. Trees are not a monophyletic taxonomic group but consist of a wide variety of plant species that have independently evolved a trunk and branches as a way to tower above other plants to compete for sunlight. The majority of tree species are angiosperms or hardwoods; of the rest, many are gymnosperms or softwoods. Trees tend to be long-lived, some reaching several thousand years old. Trees have been in existence for 370 million years. It is estimated that there are around three trillion mature trees in the world. A tree typically has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground by the trunk, which typically contains woody tissue for strength, and vascular tissue to carry materials from one part of the tree to another. For most trees it is surrounded by a layer of bark which serves as a protective barrier. Below the ground, the roots branch and spread out widely; they serve to anchor the tree and extract moisture and nutrients from the soil. Above ground, the branches divide into smaller branches and shoots. The shoots typically bear leaves, which capture light energy and convert it into sugars by photosynthesis, providing the food for the tree's growth and development. Trees usually reproduce using seeds. Flowers and fruit may be present, but some trees, such as conifers, instead have pollen cones and seed cones. Palms, bananas, and bamboos also produce seeds, but tree ferns produce spores instead. Trees play a significant role in reducing erosion and moderating the climate. They remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and store large quantities of carbon in their tissues. Trees and forests provide a habitat for many species of animals and plants. Tropical rainforests are among the most biodiverse habitats in the world. Trees provide shade and shelter, timber for construction, fuel for cooking and heating, and fruit for food as well as having many other uses. In much of the world, forests are shrinking as trees are cleared to increase the amount of land available for agriculture. Because of their longevity and usefulness, trees have always been revered, with sacred groves in various cultures, and they play a role in many of the world's mythologies. (Full article...) An arborist, tree surgeon, or (less commonly) arboriculturist, is a professional in the practice of arboriculture, which is the cultivation, management, and study of individual trees, shrubs, vines, and other perennial woody plants in dendrology and horticulture. Arborists generally focus on the health and safety of individual plants and trees, rather than managing forests or harvesting wood (silviculture or forestry). An arborist's scope of work is therefore distinct from that of either a forester or a logger. (Full article...) Kenneth Dupee Swan (1887–1970), more commonly known as K.D. Swan, was an American nature photographer in the early part of the 20th century. During his career in the USDA Forest Service (1911–1947) he took many picture of the American Northwest. Swan captured the face of public lands, revealing its wildness and value to the American public. His messages of long ago still emanate from his images - the value of conserving public lands and the joy of living in magnificent wild places. (Full article...) The New York State College of Forestry, the first professional school of forestry in North America, opened its doors at Cornell University, in Ithaca, New York, in the autumn of 1898., It was advocated for by Governor Frank S. Black, but after just a few years of operation, it was defunded in 1903, by Governor Benjamin B. Odell in response to public outcry over the College's controversial forestry practices in the Adirondacks. Less than a decade later, in 1911, the New York State College of Forestry was reestablished at Syracuse University by the New York State Legislature, with a mandate for forest conservation. The institution has continued to evolve and is now part of the State University of New York (SUNY) system, while still closely related and immediately adjacent to Syracuse University. Today, the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, or SUNY-ESF, is a doctoral degree-granting institution based in Syracuse, New York, with facilities and forest properties in several additional locations in upstate New York and Costa Rica; it commemorated its centennial anniversary in 2011. (Full article...) The United Nations Forum on Forests (UNFF) is a high-level intergovernmental policy forum. The forum includes all United Nations member states and permanent observers, the UNFF Secretariat, the Collaborative Partnership on Forests, Regional Organizations and Processes and Major Groups. (Full article...) Ecoforestry has been defined as selection forestry or restoration forestry. The main idea of ecoforestry is to maintain or restore the forest to standards where the forest may still be harvested for products on a sustainable basis. Ecoforestry is forestry that emphasizes holistic practices which strive to protect and restore ecosystems rather than maximize economic productivity. Sustainability of the forest also comes with uncertainties. There are other factors that may affect the forest furthermore than that of the harvesting. There are internal conditions such as effects of soil compaction, tree damage, disease, fire, and blow down that also directly affect the ecosystem. These factors have to be taken into account when determining the sustainability of a forest. If these factors are added to the harvesting and production that comes out of the forest, then the forest will become less likely to survive, and will then become less sustainable. Since the forest is considered an ecosystem, it is dependent on all of the living and non-living factors within itself. This is a major part of why the forest needs to be sustainable before it is harvested. For example, a tree, by way of photosynthesis, converts sunlight to sugars for respiration to keep the tree alive. The remains of the converted sugars is left in roots for consumption by the organisms surrounding the tree in the habitat. This shows the productivity of an ecosystem with its inhabitants. Productivity within the ecosystem cannot come to fruition unless the forest is sustainable enough to be harvested. If most individual organisms of the ecosystem vanish, the ecosystem itself is at risk. Once that happens, there is no longer any forest to harvest from. The overall productivity of a system can be found in an equation where the Net Primary Production, or NPP, is equal to the Gross Primary Production, or GPP, minus the Respiration, or R. The formula is the NPP = GPP - R. The NPP is the overall efficiency of the plants in the ecosystem. Through having a constant efficiency in NPP, the ecosystem is then more sustainable. The GPP refers to the rate of energy stored by photosynthesis in plants. The R refers to the maintenance and reproduction of plants from the energy expended. Ecoforestry has many principles within the existence of itself. It covers sustainable development and the fair harvesting of the organisms living within the forest ecosystem. There have been many proposals of principles outlined for ecoforestry. They are covered over books, articles, and environmental agencies. All of the principles relate to the idea that in ecoforestry, less should be harvested, and diversity must be managed. Through harvesting less, there is enough biomass left in the forest, so that the forest may stay healthy and still stay maintained. It will grow at a sustainable level annually, and thus it will be able to still be harvested the following year. Through management of the diversity, species may cohabitate in an ecosystem where the forest may feed off of other species in its growth and production. The Principles of Ecoforestry may be found below. (Full article...) A chainsaw (or chain saw) is a portable handheld power saw that cuts with a set of teeth attached to a rotating chain driven along a guide bar. Modern chainsaws are typically gasoline-, electric-, or battery-powered and are used in activities such as tree felling, limbing, bucking, pruning, cutting firebreaks in wildland fire suppression, harvesting of firewood, for use in chainsaw art and chainsaw mills, for cutting concrete, and cutting ice. Precursors to modern chainsaws were first used in surgery, with patents for wood chainsaws beginning in the late 19th century. A chainsaw comprises an engine, a drive mechanism, a guide bar, a cutting chain, a tensioning mechanism, and safety features. Various safety practices and working techniques are used with chainsaws. (Full article...) Saint Petersburg State Forestry University (Russian: Санкт-Петербургский государственный лесотехнический университет им. С. М. Кирова (СПбГЛТУ) (also known under its former name Лесотехническая академия "Forestry academy", Rus. abbrev. ЛТА (LTA)) is a higher education institution in Saint Petersburg, Russia, founded in 1803 by an edict of Emperor Alexander I. Saint Petersburg State Forestry University is a state-owned higher education institution, giving undergraduate, graduate and postgraduate education; it trains, retrains, and provides professional development for, people with degrees for industry work, research and teaching in the field of forest management, timber industry, wood mechanical processing, forest chemical industry, wood-pulp and paper industry, hydrolysis industry; it carries out theoretical and applied research. The University is a leading science and methodology center for the network of forestry degree colleges of Russia. (Full article...)

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Brazil once had the highest deforestation rate in the world and in 2005 still had the largest area of forest removed annually. Since 1970, over 700,000 square kilometres (270,000 sq mi) of the Amazon rainforest have been destroyed. In 2001, the Amazon was approximately 5,400,000 square kilometres (2,100,000 sq mi), which is only 87% of the Amazon's original size. According to official data, about 729,000 km² have already been deforested in the Amazon biome, which corresponds to 17% of the total. 300,000 km² have been deforested in the last 20 years. Rainforests have decreased in size primarily due to deforestation. Between May 2000 and August 2006, Brazil lost nearly 150,000 square kilometres (58,000 sq mi) of forest, an area larger than Greece. According to the Living Planet Report 2010, deforestation continues at an alarming rate. At the Convention on Biological Diversity's 9th Conference, 67 ministers signed up to help achieve zero net deforestation by 2020. Due to deforestation the Amazon was a net emitter of greenhouse gas in the 2010s. The effects include "severe financial losses, social setbacks, and biodiversity loss". Economic losses due to deforestation in Brazil could reach around 317 billion dollars per year, approximately 7 times higher in comparison to the cost of all commodities produced through deforestation. In 2023 the World Bank, published a report named: "A Balancing Act for Brazil’s Amazonian States: An Economic Memorandum" proposing non-deforestation based economic program in the region of the Amazon rainforest. (Full article...) Line plot survey is a systematic sampling technique used on land surfaces for laying out sample plots within a rectangular grid to conduct forest inventory or agricultural research. It is a specific type of systematic sampling, similar to other statistical sampling methods such as random sampling, but more straightforward to carry out in practice. This survey methodology is typically used to collect information about seedlings, shrubs, invasive species, signs of wildlife, need for fertilization, timber species count, and other similar types of data. For statistical control, all sample plots are a precise radius, typically 4 to 8 feet (120 to 240 cm), and must not include features outside each sampling circle. (Full article...) Botany, also called plant science (or plant sciences), plant biology or phytology, is the science of plant life and a branch of biology. A botanist, plant scientist or phytologist is a scientist who specialises in this field. The term "botany" comes from the Ancient Greek word βοτάνη (botanē) meaning "pasture", "herbs" "grass", or "fodder"; βοτάνη is in turn derived from βόσκειν (boskein), "to feed" or "to graze". Traditionally, botany has also included the study of fungi and algae by mycologists and phycologists respectively, with the study of these three groups of organisms remaining within the sphere of interest of the International Botanical Congress. Nowadays, botanists (in the strict sense) study approximately 410,000 species of land plants of which some 391,000 species are vascular plants (including approximately 369,000 species of flowering plants), and approximately 20,000 are bryophytes. Botany originated in prehistory as herbalism with the efforts of early humans to identify – and later cultivate – plants that were edible, poisonous, and possibly medicinal, making it one of the first endeavours of human investigation. Medieval physic gardens, often attached to monasteries, contained plants possibly having medicinal benefit. They were forerunners of the first botanical gardens attached to universities, founded from the 1540s onwards. One of the earliest was the Padua botanical garden. These gardens facilitated the academic study of plants. Efforts to catalogue and describe their collections were the beginnings of plant taxonomy, and led in 1753 to the binomial system of nomenclature of Carl Linnaeus that remains in use to this day for the naming of all biological species. In the 19th and 20th centuries, new techniques were developed for the study of plants, including methods of optical microscopy and live cell imaging, electron microscopy, analysis of chromosome number, plant chemistry and the structure and function of enzymes and other proteins. In the last two decades of the 20th century, botanists exploited the techniques of molecular genetic analysis, including genomics and proteomics and DNA sequences to classify plants more accurately. Modern botany is a broad, multidisciplinary subject with contributions and insights from most other areas of science and technology. Research topics include the study of plant structure, growth and differentiation, reproduction, biochemistry and primary metabolism, chemical products, development, diseases, evolutionary relationships, systematics, and plant taxonomy. Dominant themes in 21st century plant science are molecular genetics and epigenetics, which study the mechanisms and control of gene expression during differentiation of plant cells and tissues. Botanical research has diverse applications in providing staple foods, materials such as timber, oil, rubber, fibre and drugs, in modern horticulture, agriculture and forestry, plant propagation, breeding and genetic modification, in the synthesis of chemicals and raw materials for construction and energy production, in environmental management, and the maintenance of biodiversity. (Full article...) A splash dam was a temporary wooden dam used to raise the water level in streams to float logs downstream to sawmills. By impounding water and allowing it to be released on the log drive's schedule, these dams allowed many more logs to be brought to market than the natural flow of the stream allowed. Water releases from multiple splash dams on tributaries were also often combined to maximize the number of logs floated throughout a given watershed. (Full article...) "Cleaning" and "weeding" are two similar terms referring to the practice of selecting particularly desirable trees in a young stand and removing or killing trees that threaten their survival or development. Used correctly, the term "cleaning" refers to the removal or killing of over topping competitors that are significantly taller than the desired trees, and is usually done in the sapling stage. While the term "weeding" refers to the removal of mainly herbaceous plants and shrubs that are of the same height, but still competing for the resources that could be used by the selected trees. It is usually done in the seedling stage. Or cleaning is carried out in a crop which has not crossed the sapling stage and it is defined as the cutting made in order to face the best individual form undesirable one of the same age which interfere or likely with the growth of the desired individuals Colloquially, these treatments are often referred to as crop tree release when they are practiced in sapling sized stands. Cleaning is common in softwood plantations, clearcuts, and over story removals, where the desired conifers are over topped by rapidly growing early-successional hardwood species. Herbicides are often used in these cleaning operations because the correct chemical at the correct dose (e.g. glyphosate or triclopyr) and time will kill only broad leaved species, leaving the conifers unharmed and free to grow. Chemical treatments may be applied by foliage sprays, mists or pellets. This can be from a vehicle or by aerial spraying. Where chemicals are impractical or unpalatable to the landowner, a brush cutter is used to cut competing trees close to the ground. Other methods of cleaning include mowing with brush hogs attached to a tractor. (Full article...) A chainsaw (or chain saw) is a portable handheld power saw that cuts with a set of teeth attached to a rotating chain driven along a guide bar. Modern chainsaws are typically gasoline-, electric-, or battery-powered and are used in activities such as tree felling, limbing, bucking, pruning, cutting firebreaks in wildland fire suppression, harvesting of firewood, for use in chainsaw art and chainsaw mills, for cutting concrete, and cutting ice. Precursors to modern chainsaws were first used in surgery, with patents for wood chainsaws beginning in the late 19th century. A chainsaw comprises an engine, a drive mechanism, a guide bar, a cutting chain, a tensioning mechanism, and safety features. Various safety practices and working techniques are used with chainsaws. (Full article...) According to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, half of the world's forests have already been altered, degraded, destroyed or converted into other land uses. Many forests suffer from illegal exploitation and poor management. FSC was established as a response to these concerns over global deforestation. Tropical deforestation as a global concern rose to prominence in the 1980s and can be somewhat attributed to a fight for action by environmentalists and northern countries over the need to protect tropical woodland. Prior to this, a number of other economic and regulatory mechanisms such as financial aid, policy frameworks, and trade conventions were established in the fight against deforestation. These include the International Tropical Timber Agreement (1983), the Convention of International Trade on Endangered Species (1975) and the Global Environment Facility (1991). Despite the increased level of concern in the run-up to the 1992 Earth Summit held in Rio de Janeiro, tensions between the North and the global South over access to finance and technology for the preservation of forests protracted negotiations. Although many Northern countries had hoped for a legally binding convention the resulting Statement of Forest Principles represents the "mean position of the lowest common denominator" and is voluntary. Disappointed with the outcome of the Earth Summit, NGOs such as the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) began to turn their attention to industry for a more meaningful governance-orientated resolution to the problem of deforestation. In the lead-up to the Earth Summit, social groups, NGOs, and industries were also beginning to consult on the issue of deforestation. In America, the consultation process that eventually led to the establishment of the FSC was initiated in 1990 and concluded in the confirmation of support for the development of a voluntary worldwide certification and accreditation governance system that would cover all forest types. In the UK, NGO WWF began to facilitate action through the establishment of the 1995 Group, recruiting organizations that had been spurred on by instances of direct action and boycotting over the sale of tropical wood to form an NGO-business partnership. Through stakeholder involvement, it became apparent that a standard-setting body would be required to verify the source of wood products and define sustainable forest management. After 18 months of consultation in ten different countries, the Forest Stewardship Council was established in 1993. The failure of governments to reach any notable form of consensus in the form of an internationally reaching and legally binding agreement caused both disillusionment and an opportunity for change through the involvement of civil society and business actors to form "soft law". As such the establishment of the Forest Stewardship Council as the response to this disillusionment also represents a global shift from government to governance and its creation is a primary example of the use of market and economic factors to create movement on a global environmental issue. Although the FSC transcends national boundaries, the state continues to play a part in the regulatory landscape of the domestic forest, and as such the FSC must develop appropriate domestic governance to reflect this. (Full article...) This is a list of tertiary educational institutions around the world offering bachelor's, master's or doctoral degrees in forestry or related fields. Where noted, the country's accreditation board standard has been used and cited. They are grouped by continent. (For educational institutions with forestry technician or professional certificate programs see: List of forestry technical schools.) (Full article...) Tree planting is the process of transplanting tree seedlings, generally for forestry, land reclamation, or landscaping purposes. It differs from the transplantation of larger trees in arboriculture and from the lower-cost but slower and less reliable distribution of tree seeds. Trees contribute to their environment over long periods of time by providing oxygen, improving air quality, climate amelioration, conserving water, preserving soil, and supporting wildlife. During the process of photosynthesis, trees take in carbon dioxide and produce the oxygen we breathe. In silviculture, the activity is known as "reforestation", or "afforestation," depending on whether the area being planted has recently been forested or not. It involves planting seedlings over an area of land where the forest has been harvested or damaged by fire, disease, or human activity. Tree planting is carried out in many different parts of the world, and strategies may differ widely across nations and regions and among individual reforestation companies. Tree planting is grounded in forest science and, if performed properly, can result in the successful regeneration of a deforested area. Reforestation is the commercial logging industry's answer to the large-scale destruction of old-growth forests, but a planted forest rarely replicates the biodiversity and complexity of a natural forest. Because trees remove carbon dioxide from the air as they grow, tree planting can be used to help limit climate change. Desert greening projects are also motivated by improved biodiversity and reclamation of natural water systems, as well as improved economic and social welfare due to an increased number of jobs in farming and forestry. (Full article...) Károly Bund (4 June 1869 – 16 May 1931) was a Hungarian professional forestry engineer and an early environmentalist, serving as executive secretary of Hungary's National Forestry Association (Országos Erdészeti Egyesület), from 1900 until his death. (Full article...) The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2006, is a key piece of forest legislation passed in India on 18 December 2006. It has also been called the Forest Rights Act, the Tribal Rights Act, the Tribal Bill, and the Tribal Land Act. The law concerns the rights of forest-dwelling communities to land and other resources, denied to them over decades as a result of the continuance of colonial forest laws in India. Supporters of the Act claim that it will redress the "historical injustice" committed against forest dwellers, while including provisions for making conservation more effective and more transparent. The demand for the law has seen massive national demonstrations involving hundreds of thousands of people. However, the law has also been the subject of considerable controversy in India. Opponents of the law claim it will lead to massive forest destruction and should be repealed. A little over one year after it was passed, the Act was notified into force on 31 December 2007. On 1 January 2008, this was followed by the notification of the Rules framed by the Ministry of Tribal Affairs to supplement the procedural aspects of the Act. (Full article...) The Indian Forest Act, 1927 was largely based on previous Indian Forest Acts implemented under the British. The most famous one was the Indian Forest Act of 1878. Both the 1878 act and the 1927 act sought to consolidate and reserve the areas having forest cover, or significant wildlife, to regulate movement and transit of forest produce, and duty leviable on timber and other forest produce. It also defines the procedure to be followed for declaring an area to be a Reserved Forest, a Protected Forest or a Village Forest. It defines what is a forest offence, what are the acts prohibited inside a Reserved Forest, and penalties leviable on violation of the provisions of the Act. (Full article...) Stumpage is the price a private firm pays for the right to harvest timber from a given land base. It is paid to the current owner of the land. Historically, the price was determined on a basis of the number of trees harvested, or "per stump". Currently it is dictated by more standard measurements such as cubic metres, board feet, or tons. To determine stumpage, any stand that will be harvested by the firm is first assessed and appraised through processes aimed at finding the volume of timber that is to be harvested. A given stumpage rate, measured in $/volume, is then applied to the amount of timber to be harvested. The firm will then pay this price to the landowner. (Full article...) An increment borer is a specialized tool used to extract a section of wood tissue from a living tree with relatively minor injury to the plant itself. The tool consists of a handle, an auger bit and a small, half circular metal tray ( the core extractor) that fits into the auger bit; the last is usually manufactured from carbide steel. It is most often used by foresters, researchers and scientists to determine the age of a tree. This science is also called dendrochronology. The operation enables the user to count the rings in the core sample, to reveal the age of the tree being examined and its growth rate. After use the tool breaks down: auger bit and extractor fit within the handle, making it highly compact and easy to carry. (Full article...) Forestry is the science and craft of creating, managing, planting, using, conserving and repairing forests and woodlands for associated resources for human and environmental benefits. Forestry is practiced in plantations and natural stands. The science of forestry has elements that belong to the biological, physical, social, political and managerial sciences. Forest management plays an essential role in the creation and modification of habitats and affects ecosystem services provisioning. Modern forestry generally embraces a broad range of concerns, in what is known as multiple-use management, including: the provision of timber, fuel wood, wildlife habitat, natural water quality management, recreation, landscape and community protection, employment, aesthetically appealing landscapes, biodiversity management, watershed management, erosion control, and preserving forests as "sinks" for atmospheric carbon dioxide. Forest ecosystems have come to be seen as the most important component of the biosphere, and forestry has emerged as a vital applied science, craft, and technology. A practitioner of forestry is known as a forester. Another common term is silviculturist. Silviculture is narrower than forestry, being concerned only with forest plants, but is often used synonymously with forestry. All people depend upon forests and their biodiversity, some more than others. Forestry is an important economic segment in various industrial countries, as forests provide more than 86 million green jobs and support the livelihoods of many more people. For example, in Germany, forests cover nearly a third of the land area, wood is the most important renewable resource, and forestry supports more than a million jobs and about €181 billion of value to the German economy each year. Worldwide, an estimated 880 million people spend part of their time collecting fuelwood or producing charcoal, many of them women. Human populations tend to be low in areas of low-income countries with high forest cover and high forest biodiversity, but poverty rates in these areas tend to be high. Some 252 million people living in forests and savannahs have incomes of less than US$1.25 per day. (Full article...) Variable retention is a relatively new silvicultural system that retains forest structural elements for at least one rotation in order to preserve environmental values associated with structurally complex forests. Some examples for environmental values are forest cover connectivity, soil stabilization, microclimate under retained trees, habitats associated with live or dead trees and species diversity due to habitat preservation, and wildlife corridor preservation. Variable retention also aids in emulation of natural disturbances by leaving behind some residual structure from previous stand which is typical for stand replacing disturbances Traditional silviculture systems such as clearcut, patch cut, shelterwood, etc. are focused on maximizing timber production and future regeneration of the trees. Variable retention on the other hand is focused on what is retained (Full article...) The Forestry Commission is a non-ministerial government department responsible for the management of publicly owned forests and the regulation of both public and private forestry in England. The Forestry Commission was previously also responsible for Forestry in Wales and Scotland. However, on 1 April 2013, Forestry Commission Wales merged with other agencies to become Natural Resources Wales, whilst two new bodies (Forestry and Land Scotland and Scottish Forestry) were established in Scotland on 1 April 2019. The Forestry Commission was established in 1919 to expand Britain's forests and woodland, which had been severely depleted during the First World War. The Commission bought large amounts of agricultural land on behalf of the state, eventually becoming the largest manager of land in Britain. Today, the Forestry Commission is divided into three divisions: Forestry England, Forestry Commission and Forest Research. Over time the purpose of the Commission broadened to include many other activities beyond timber production. One major activity is scientific research, some of which is carried out in research forests across Britain. Recreation is also important, with several outdoor activities being actively promoted. Protecting and improving biodiversity across England's forests are also part of the Forestry Commission's remit. The Commission received criticism for its reliance on conifers, particularly the uniform appearance of conifer forests and concerns over a lack of biodiversity. Furious protests from the general public and conservation groups accompanied attempts to privatise the organisation in 1993 and 2010. (Full article...) The International Tropical Timber Organization (ITTO) is an intergovernmental organization that promotes conservation of tropical forest resources and their sustainable management, use and trade. (Full article...) Sir Wilhelm Philipp Daniel Schlich KCIE FRS FLS (28 February 1840 in Flonheim – 28 September 1925 in Oxford), also known as William Schlich, was a German-born forester who worked extensively in India for the British administration. As a professor at Cooper's Hill, he influenced colonial forestry across the British colonies. His major work was a five volume Manual of Forestry (1889-96). (Full article...) A log flume is a watertight flume constructed to transport lumber and logs down mountainous terrain using flowing water. Flumes replaced horse- or oxen-drawn carriages on dangerous mountain trails in the late 19th century. Logging operations preferred flumes whenever a reliable source of water was available. Flumes were cheaper to build and operate than logging railroads. They could span long distances across chasms with more lightweight trestles. Flumes remained in widespread use through the early 20th century. The logging truck replaced both the logging railroad and the flume after WWII. Today, log flumes remain in the popular imagination as amusement park rides. (Full article...) This article lists lists of forests. (Full article...) In plantation forests in parts of Europe, the tree stumps left after felling are now sometimes pulled out of the ground to supply wood fuel for biomass power stations. The stump is the base of the trunk and the attached woody roots. Tree stumps and roots are extracted using a hydraulic head on a tracked excavator or with a mechanical head equipped by a special tool for tractors. Stump harvesting is expected to provide an increasing component of the woody material required by the woody biomass power sector in Europe. (Full article...)

List of sharks

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The elongate carpet shark (Parascyllium elongatum) is a species of carpetshark in the family Parascylliidae. It is known from a single female specimen 42.1 cm (16.6 in) long, recovered from the stomach of a school shark (Galeorhinus galeus) caught from a depth of 50 m (160 ft) off Chatham Island, Western Australia. It was described by P.R. Last and J.D. Stevens in 2008. (Full article...) The eastern angelshark (Squatina albipunctata) is an angelshark of the family Squatinidae. (Full article...) The necklace carpetshark (Parascyllium variolatum), also known as the varied carpetshark, is a carpetshark of the family Parascylliidae endemic to the waters off Australia's southern coast between latitudes 37°S and 41°S. It is found near the ocean floor over sand, rock, coral reefs, and kelp and seagrass beds at depths down to 180 m (590 ft). It is almost exclusively seen at night and spends the day hidden in caves or camouflaged on the ocean floor. With a slender, elongated body and a maximum length of only 91.0 cm TL, it is harmless to humans. The tail is long, but difficult to tell apart from the rest of the shark. Its body is grey to brown in color with a broad black collar, from which it gets its name, and white spots along its body. It has small spiracles and nostrils with short barbels, likely used for sensory purposes. It is often mistaken for a species of catshark, despite being more closely related to wobbegongs and nurse sharks. It is a nocturnal predator and feeds mostly on shellfish. Reproduction is oviparous with females laying eggs with curled tendrils that anchor them to the ocean floor. The embryos feed on yolk. (Full article...) The Campeche catshark (Parmaturus campechiensis) is a catshark of the family Schyliorhinidae. It is known only from the holotype, a 15.7 cm immature female found in the northwestern Bay of Campeche in the Gulf of Mexico. The specimen was collected at 1,057 m, a depth beyond current and probably future fishing pressure in the region. The reproduction of this catshark is oviparous. (Full article...) The western spotted gummy shark (Mustelus stevensi) is a species of houndshark in the family Triakidae, found in Australian waters. This new species of gummy sharks is a relatively large species. (Full article...) The tiger catshark (Halaelurus natalensis) is a species of catshark, belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae. It is found over sandy areas and near reef peripheries off South Africa and perhaps Mozambique, from close to shore to usually no deeper than 100 m (330 ft). Reaching a length of 50 cm (20 in), this small, slim shark has a broad, flattened head with an upturned snout tip. It can additionally be identified by its dorsal colour pattern of ten dark brown saddles on a yellowish brown background. Bottom-dwelling and inactive, the tiger catshark feeds on a wide variety of fishes and invertebrates from on or near the sea floor. An oviparous species, the female retains her eggs internally until the embryos are at an advanced state of development, resulting in a relatively short hatching time after laying. Between 12 and 22 encapsulated eggs are produced at a time, which the female attaches to the bottom. The tiger catshark is caught incidentally by commercial and recreational fishers but has no economic value. It has been listed as vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). (Full article...) The Atlantic weasel shark (Paragaleus pectoralis) is a weasel shark of the family Hemigaleidae, found in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. Also known as the little tiger shark, it is the only species of the genus Paragaleus to have been recorded off the western coast of Africa. It is one of four species of small sharks within the carcharhinoid genus Paragaleus, including Paragaleus leucolomatus (whitetip weasel shark), Paragaleus tengi (straight-tooth weasel shark), and Paragaleus randalli (slender weasel shark). It also one of eight species within the weasel shark family, Hemigaleidae. It is currently considered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as Endangered. (Full article...) The ocellated angelshark (Squatina tergocellatoides) is an angelshark of the family Squatinidae found only from the Taiwan Straits in the western Pacific between latitudes 28 and 22°N and in northern Malaysia. Its length is up to 63 cm. Reproduction is ovoviviparous. (Full article...) The blacktip shark (Carcharhinus limbatus) is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae. It is common to coastal tropical and subtropical waters around the world, including brackish habitats. Genetic analyses have revealed substantial variation within this species, with populations from the western Atlantic Ocean isolated and distinct from those in the rest of its range. The blacktip shark has a stout, fusiform body with a pointed snout, long gill slits, and no ridge between the dorsal fins. Most individuals have black tips or edges on the pectoral, dorsal, pelvic, and caudal fins. It usually attains a length of 1.5 m (4.9 ft). Swift, energetic piscivores, blacktip sharks are known to make spinning leaps out of the water while attacking schools of small fish. Their demeanor has been described as "timid" compared to other large requiem sharks. Both juveniles and adults form groups of varying size. Like other members of its family, the blacktip shark is viviparous; females bear one to 10 pups every other year. Young blacktip sharks spend the first months of their lives in shallow nurseries, and grown females return to the nurseries where they were born to give birth themselves. In the absence of males, females are also capable of asexual reproduction. Normally wary of humans, blacktip sharks can become aggressive in the presence of food and have been responsible for a number of attacks on people. This species is of importance to both commercial and recreational fisheries across many parts of its range, with its meat, skin, fins, and liver oil used. It has been assessed as Vulnerable by the IUCN, on the basis of its low reproductive rate and high value to fishers. (Full article...) The broadbanded lanternshark (Etmopterus gracilispinis) is a shark of the family Etmopteridae found in the western and southeast Atlantic, between latitudes 40°N and 45°S, at depths of between 70 and 1,000 m. Its length is up to 35 cm. Reproduction is presumed to be ovoviviparous. (Full article...) Chiloscyllium is a genus of sharks in the family Hemiscylliidae. This genus is distinguished by a relatively long snout with subterminal nostrils. The eyes and supraorbital ridges are hardly elevated. The mouth is closer to the eyes than to the tip of the snout, with lower labial folds usually connected across the chin by a flap of skin. The pectoral and pelvic fins are thin and not very muscular. No black hood on the head or large black spot on the side is present (though juveniles often are strongly marked with dark spots/bars). Chiloscyllium arabicum Gubanov, 1980 (Arabian carpetshark) Chiloscyllium burmensis Dingerkus & DeFino, 1983 (Burmese bamboo shark) Chiloscyllium griseum J. P. Müller & Henle, 1838 (grey bamboo shark) Chiloscyllium hasselti Bleeker, 1852 (Hasselt's bamboo shark) Chiloscyllium indicum (J. F. Gmelin, 1789) (slender bamboo shark) Chiloscyllium plagiosum (Anonymous, referred to Bennett, 1830) (white-spotted bamboo shark) Chiloscyllium punctatum J. P. Müller & Henle, 1838 (brown-banded bamboo shark) (Full article...) Orectolobus reticulatus, the network wobbegong, is a recently described species of carpet shark found in relatively shallow waters off Kimberley and Darwin in north-western Australia. With a known maximum length of only 52.3 centimetres (20.6 in), it may be the smallest species of wobbegong. Until its description in 2008, it had been confused with the northern wobbegong. The network wobbegong has a short snout, broad head, elongated body, and two dorsal fins, with the first being slightly larger than the second. Its body is grayish brown with darker brown markings and a pale yellow underbelly. The network wobbegong lives in shallow waters along reefy bottoms. The reproductive strategies of this species are not known, but other Orectolobus species are oviparous and have slow reproductive cycles. Its dentition indicates that the diet of the network wobbegong consists predominantly of small fishes, as well as some cephalopods and crustaceans, such as lobsters and crabs. (Full article...) The New Caledonia catshark or Kanakorum catshark (Aulohalaelurus kanakorum) is a catshark of the family Scyliorhinidae in the order Carcharhiniformes, known only from one specimen collected near southwestern New Caledonia in the western central Pacific Ocean. The holotype measured 79 cm (31 in). The New Caledonia catshark is a rare and vulnerable inshore catshark found around coral reefs. (Full article...) The narrowmouthed catshark (Schroederichthys bivius) is a catshark of the family Scyliorhinidae, found from central Chile around the Straits of Magellan, to Argentina between latitudes 23° S and 56° S, at depths down to about 180 m (600 ft) in the Atlantic Ocean and about 360 m (1,200 ft) in the Pacific. It can grow to a length of up to 70 cm (28 in). The reproduction of this catshark is oviparous. (Full article...) Figaro is a genus of catshark, and part of the family Scyliorhinidae. Until 2008, Figaro was generally considered to be a subgenus of Galeus (sawtail catsharks). The two known species are found off Australia, inhabiting deep, offshore waters on or near the bottom. Figaro contains small, slender, firm-bodied sharks that bear distinctive crests of enlarged, spiny dermal denticles along the dorsal and ventral edges of their short caudal fins. The caudal peduncle is relatively long, such as that the anal and caudal fins are some distance apart. In adult males, the inner margins of the pelvic fins are fused together to form a subtle "apron" over the claspers. F. boardmani is a predator of fishes, crustaceans, and cephalopods, and is oviparous; less is known about the F. striatus. Both are harmless and are of no economic importance. (Full article...) The tropical sawshark, Pristiophorus delicatus, is a recently described species of sawshark, family Pristiophoridae, formerly known in literature as Pristiophorus sp. B. It is endemic to northeastern Australia, found on the upper continental slope off Queensland from south of the Samaurez Reef, at a depth of 246–405 meters (807–1,329 ft). Its specific epithet delicatus is Latin for "delicate", referring to the fine teeth on its saw-like rostrum. This is a small species; the maximum known length is 85 cm (33 in) for females and 63 cm (25 in) for males (although no mature males have yet been examined). The body is slender with a circular cross-section, and depressed forward of the gill slits. The elongated, saw-like snout tapers evenly to its tip, and bears very slender lateral teeth of variable length and a pair of filamentous, dorsoventrally flattened barbels. The eyes are large and oval in shape. Its nostrils about one-third the distance from the corner of the mouth to the barbel attachment on the rostrum. The mouth is large and broadly arched; there are 47 tooth rows in the upper jaw and 37 in the lower. The teeth have flattened, oval bases and a single narrow, pointed cusp. The pectoral fins are large with narrowed rounded tips and weakly concave rear margins. The two dorsal fins are well-separated, the first longer and broader than the second. The caudal fin is short, with the lower lobe absent. The coloration is medium brown above and white below; there are pronounced white rear margins on the dorsal and caudal fins. The paired fins are mostly pale with brownish basal portions clearly demarcated from the rest of the fin. Very little is known of the biology of the tropical sawshark; its small size may indicate that it is reproductively productive. There is little fishing pressure within its range, and so it is classified as of Least Concern by the World Conservation Union. (Full article...) The smalleye lanternshark (Etmopterus litvinovi) is a shark of the family Etmopteridae found in the southeast Pacific off Peru and Chile, at depths between 630 and 1,100 m (2,070 and 3,610 ft). Its length is up to 61 cm (24 in). Reproduction is ovoviviparous. The shark appears to be endemic to two areas. The Nazca ridge and the Sala y Gomez ridge. (Full article...) The blacktip tope (Hypogaleus hyugaensis), also known as pencil shark or blacktip topeshark, is a houndshark of the family Triakidae, and the only member of the genus Hypogaleus. It is found in the deep waters of the continental shelf in the Indo-West Pacific, from East Africa to Japan, at depths between 40 and 230 m. It can grow up to a length of 1.27 m. (Full article...) The blurred lanternshark (Etmopterus bigelowi) is a little-known species of dogfish shark in the family Etmopteridae, found around the world in benthic and pelagic habitats from a depth of 110 m (360 ft) to over 1 km (0.62 mi) down. This shark forms the E. pusillus species group with the smooth lanternshark, which are distinguished from other members of its family by having irregularly arranged, flat-topped dermal denticles that give them a "smooth" appearance. Both species are slender-bodied with long heads, two dorsal fins bearing spines, no anal fins, and light-emitting photophores. The blurred lanternshark is larger, reaching 67 cm (26 in) or more in length. This species feeds on small squid, fishes, and fish eggs, and is ovoviviparous. It has been assessed as of Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature, because of its wide distribution and lack of threat from fishing pressure. (Full article...) The weasel sharks are a family, the Hemigaleidae, of ground sharks found from the eastern Atlantic Ocean to the continental Indo-Pacific. They are found in shallow coastal waters to a depth of 100 m (330 ft). Most species are small, reaching no more than 1.4 m (4.6 ft) long, though the snaggletooth shark (Hemipristis elongatus) may reach 2.4 m (7.9 ft). They have horizontally oval eyes, small spiracles, and precaudal pits. Two dorsal fins occur with the base of the first placed well forward of the pelvic fins. The caudal fin has a strong ventral lobe and undulations on the dorsal lobe margin. They feed on a variety of small bony fishes and invertebrates; at least two species specialize on cephalopods. They are not known to have attacked people. (Full article...) The Seychelles spurdog (Squalus lalannei) is a dogfish described in 2003. It is a member of the family Squalidae, found off the Seychelles. The length of the longest specimen measured is 61.5 cm (24.2 in). (Full article...) The sculpted lanternshark (Etmopterus sculptus) is a shark of the family Etmopteridae found from the Southeast Atlantic and Southwest Indian Ocean, specifically from Namibia to southern Mozambique and the Madagascar Ridge. Etmopterus sculptus is a moderately large species of Etmopterus. (Full article...) Oxynotus is a genus of sharks in the order Squaliformes, commonly known as the rough sharks. It is the only extant genus in the family Oxynotidae. They live in deep waters in the Atlantic and western Pacific Oceans. Rough sharks are small to medium in size, ranging from 49 to 150 cm (1.61 to 4.92 ft) in adult body length, depending on species. Their bodies are compressed, giving them a triangular cross-section. They have two large dorsal fins, each with a sharp spine, and with the first fin placed far forward above the head. Even more so than their relatives, the dogfishes, they have rough and prickly skin. Unusually among sharks, they also possess a luminous organ. (Full article...) The sandbar shark (Carcharhinus plumbeus), also known as the brown shark or thickskin shark, is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae, native to the Atlantic Ocean and the Indo-Pacific. It is distinguishable by its very high first dorsal fin and interdorsal ridge. It is not to be confused with the similarly named sand tiger shark, or Carcharias taurus. (Full article...) The genus Eridacnis, the ribbontail catsharks, is a small genus of fin-back catsharks in the family Proscylliidae. It currently consists of the following species: Eridacnis barbouri (Bigelow & Schroeder, 1944) (Cuban ribbontail catshark) Eridacnis radcliffei H. M. Smith, 1913 (pygmy ribbontail catshark) Eridacnis sinuans (J. L. B. Smith, 1957) (African ribbontail catshark) (Full article...)

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The dwarf gulper shark (Centrophorus atromarginatus) is a dogfish of the family Centrophoridae found in the Indo-West Pacific oceans, from the Gulf of Aden, Japan, Taiwan, and northern Papua New Guinea, living and feeding at dephts exciding 656 ft (m), marine, deep-water dogfish most commonly found between 328 ft and 3937 ft (100-1200 meters) (Full article...) The dumb gulper shark (Centrophorus harrissoni) is a rare and endangered deepwater dogfish, found along the east coast of Australia and in isolated spots north and west of New Zealand. It is also known as the dumb shark, Harrison's deep-sea dogfish, or Harrison's dogfish. (Full article...) The brown catshark (Apristurus brunneus) is commonly found in the Pacific Ocean, ranging from the northern Pacific waters off the coast of British Columbia and south to the Baja California peninsula in Mexico. They may live as far south as Ecuador and Peru. Brown catsharks are deep-water sharks that live on the outer continental shelf and the upper slope. They have been known to live at depths ranging from 30 to 650 m and live on the bottom, usually in muddy or sandy areas. The brown catshark, when originally described, was called Catulus brunneus. (Full article...) The largetooth cookiecutter shark (Isistius plutodus) is a rare species of squaliform shark in the family Dalatiidae, reported from depths of 60–200 m (200–660 ft) at scattered locations in the Atlantic and Pacific Oceans. As its common name suggests, it is similar in appearance to the cookiecutter shark (I. brasiliensis) but has much larger lower teeth. This species reaches a maximum known length of 42 cm (17 in). The largetooth cookiecutter shark feeds by gouging out chunks of flesh from larger animals, including bony fishes, sharks, and marine mammals, and is able to take larger bites than I. brasiliensis. Little is known of its life history; it is thought to be a weaker swimmer than I. brasiliensis, and is presumably aplacental viviparous like the rest of its family. This shark is an infrequent bycatch of commercial trawl and longline fisheries, but is not thought to be much threatened by these activities. (Full article...) The flathead catshark (Apristurus macrorhynchus) is a catshark of the family Scyliorhinidae in the order Carcharhiniformes, found in the deep waters of the northwest Pacific Ocean. (Full article...) Parmaturus is a genus of catsharks in the family Scyliorhinidae. Four species were described in 2007 and another in 2019 with more species likely to be described in the near future. (Full article...) The ocellate topeshark (Hemitriakis complicofasciata) is a species of houndshark, belonging to the family Triakidae. It is found in the western Pacific from the Ryukyu Islands to the Philippines and Taiwan. (Full article...) The sliteye shark (Loxodon macrorhinus) is a species of requiem shark, in the family Carcharhinidae, and the only member of its genus. It is found in the tropical waters of the Indo-West Pacific between latitudes 34° N and 30° S, from depths of 7 to 100 m. It can reach a length of about 95 cm. (Full article...) The granular dogfish (Centroscyllium granulatum) is a little-known, very small dogfish shark of the family Etmopteridae, endemic to the Falkland Islands. (Full article...) Atelomycterus is a genus of catsharks in the family Scyliorhinidae. (Full article...) The brownbanded bamboo shark (Chiloscyllium punctatum), is a bamboo shark in the family Hemiscylliidae that can be found in the Indo-West Pacific from Japan to northern Australia, between latitudes 34° N and 26° S. It is regularly bred in public aquaria, and is arguably one of the sharks most suited to captivity due to its docile disposition, sedentary nature, and relatively small size. In public aquariums, these fish can live up to 25 years. (Full article...) Edmund's spurdog (Squalus edmundsi) is a dogfish described in 2007. It is a member of the family Squalidae, found off western Australia and Indonesia. The length of the longest specimen measured is 70.0 cm (27.6 in). (Full article...) The Australian spotted catshark (Asymbolus analis) is a catshark of the family Scyliorhinidae, found only around Australia between 32 and 38°S, at depths between 10 and 180 m. It can grow up to 90 cm. Females of this species were observed as being reproductive year round. They are also confirmed as being a single oviparous species. (Full article...) The Argentine angelshark (Squatina argentina) is an angelshark of the family Squatinidae. (Full article...) The great white shark (Carcharodon carcharias), also known as the white shark, white pointer, or simply great white, is a species of large mackerel shark which can be found in the coastal surface waters of all the major oceans. It is the only known surviving species of its genus Carcharodon. The great white shark is notable for its size, with the largest preserved female specimen measuring 5.83 m (19.1 ft) in length and around 2,000 kg (4,410 lb) in weight at maturity. However, most are smaller; males measure 3.4 to 4.0 m (11 to 13 ft), and females measure 4.6 to 4.9 m (15 to 16 ft) on average. According to a 2014 study, the lifespan of great white sharks is estimated to be as long as 70 years or more, well above previous estimates, making it one of the longest lived cartilaginous fishes currently known. According to the same study, male great white sharks take 26 years to reach sexual maturity, while the females take 33 years to be ready to produce offspring. Great white sharks can swim at speeds of 25 km/h (16 mph) for short bursts and to depths of 1,200 m (3,900 ft). The great white shark is arguably the world's largest-known extant macropredatory fish, and is one of the primary predators of marine mammals, such as pinnipeds and dolphins. The great white shark is also known to prey upon a variety of other animals, including fish, other sharks, and seabirds. It has only one recorded natural predator, the orca. The species faces numerous ecological challenges which has resulted in international protection. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the great white shark as a vulnerable species, and it is included in Appendix II of CITES. It is also protected by several national governments, such as Australia (as of 2018). Due to their need to travel long distances for seasonal migration and extremely demanding diet, it is not logistically feasible to keep great white sharks in captivity; because of this, while attempts have been made to do so in the past, there are no known aquariums in the world believed to house a live specimen. The great white shark is depicted in popular culture as a ferocious man-eater, largely as a result of the novel Jaws by Peter Benchley and its subsequent film adaptation by Steven Spielberg. Humans are not a preferred prey, but nevertheless it is responsible for the largest number of reported and identified fatal unprovoked shark attacks on humans. However, attacks are rare, typically occurring fewer than 10 times per year globally. (Full article...) Brachaelurus (blind sharks) is the sole genus of sharks in the family Brachaeluridae in the order Orectolobiformes. Only two species of blind sharks occur, both of which are native to shallow coastal waters up to 110 m (360 ft) deep, off the eastern coast of Australia. They are distinguished by the presence of long barbels, large spiracles, and a groove around the nostrils. They have two dorsal fins, placed close together on the back, and a relatively short tail. Blind sharks have fully functioning eyes, but their name was given to them because when caught by anglers these eyes are closed (probably to protect them). Blind sharks feed on small fish, cuttlefish, sea anemones, and crustaceans. The female retains the eggs in her body until they hatch (ovoviviparity), during which time the embryos feed solely on the egg yolk. (Full article...) The velvet catshark (Parmaturus lanatus) is a deepwater catshark. It is known only from a single specimen collected off the Tanimbar Islands in the Arafura Sea, Indonesia, at a depth of 840 to 855 metres (2,756 to 2,805 ft). The only known specimen, a juvenile male, measured a total of 36 centimetres (14 in) in length. The shark is found in the Western Pacific. It has a depth range of 840 to 855 metres (2,756 to 2,805 ft), making it bathydemersal. (Full article...) The angular angelshark or Squantina guggenheim are sharks of the Squantina genus in the Squantinidae family. They originate in Brazil, Uruguay and Argentina while living in marine, brackish and demersal environments at depth of approximately 4-360m. Their typical food sources consist of bony fish, crustaceans, and mollusks. (Full article...) The southern Mandarin dogfish (Cirrhigaleus australis) is a species of Mandarin dogfish shark in the genus Cirrhigaleus. It was distinguished from Cirrhigaleus barbifer, which lives in the North Pacific, on an expedition in the coral reefs near Australia in 2007. It is now known to live in the temperate waters in south-eastern Australia and from the Bay of Plenty region in New Zealand, at depths of 146–640 metres. (Full article...) The shortbelly catshark (Apristurus breviventralis) is a catshark of the family Scyliorhinidae. It is found in the Gulf of Aden, Indian Ocean. This species most closely resembles the western Atlantic species Apristurus canutus, but is distinguishable in having greater nostril length than internarial width and longer claspers in adult males. (Full article...) The blacktip shark (Carcharhinus limbatus) is a species of requiem shark, and part of the family Carcharhinidae. It is common to coastal tropical and subtropical waters around the world, including brackish habitats. Genetic analyses have revealed substantial variation within this species, with populations from the western Atlantic Ocean isolated and distinct from those in the rest of its range. The blacktip shark has a stout, fusiform body with a pointed snout, long gill slits, and no ridge between the dorsal fins. Most individuals have black tips or edges on the pectoral, dorsal, pelvic, and caudal fins. It usually attains a length of 1.5 m (4.9 ft). Swift, energetic piscivores, blacktip sharks are known to make spinning leaps out of the water while attacking schools of small fish. Their demeanor has been described as "timid" compared to other large requiem sharks. Both juveniles and adults form groups of varying size. Like other members of its family, the blacktip shark is viviparous; females bear one to 10 pups every other year. Young blacktip sharks spend the first months of their lives in shallow nurseries, and grown females return to the nurseries where they were born to give birth themselves. In the absence of males, females are also capable of asexual reproduction. Normally wary of humans, blacktip sharks can become aggressive in the presence of food and have been responsible for a number of attacks on people. This species is of importance to both commercial and recreational fisheries across many parts of its range, with its meat, skin, fins, and liver oil used. It has been assessed as Vulnerable by the IUCN, on the basis of its low reproductive rate and high value to fishers. (Full article...) The porbeagle or porbeagle shark (Lamna nasus) is a species of mackerel shark in the family Lamnidae, distributed widely in the cold and temperate marine waters of the North Atlantic and Southern Hemisphere. In the North Pacific, its ecological equivalent is the closely related salmon shark (L. ditropis). It typically reaches 2.5 m (8.2 ft) in length and a weight of 135 kg (298 lb); North Atlantic sharks grow larger than Southern Hemisphere sharks and differ in coloration and aspects of life history. Gray above and white below, the porbeagle has a very stout midsection that tapers towards the long, pointed snout and the narrow base of the tail. It has large pectoral and first dorsal fins, tiny pelvic, second dorsal, and anal fins, and a crescent-shaped caudal fin. The most distinctive features of this species are its three-cusped teeth, the white blotch at the aft base of its first dorsal fin, and the two pairs of lateral keels on its tail. The porbeagle is an opportunistic hunter that preys mainly on bony fishes and cephalopods throughout the water column, including the bottom. Most commonly found over food-rich banks on the outer continental shelf, it makes occasional forays both close to shore and into the open ocean to a depth of 1,360 m (4,460 ft). It also conducts long-distance seasonal migrations, generally shifting between shallower and deeper water. The porbeagle is fast and highly active, with physiological adaptations that enable it to maintain a higher body temperature than the surrounding water. It can be solitary or gregarious, and has been known to perform seemingly playful behavior. This shark is aplacental viviparous with oophagy, developing embryos being retained within the mother's uterus and subsisting on non-viable eggs. Females typically bear four pups every year. Only a few shark attacks of uncertain provenance have been attributed to the porbeagle. It is well regarded as a game fish by recreational anglers. The meat and fins of the porbeagle are highly valued, which has led to a long history of intense human exploitation. However, this species cannot sustain heavy fishing pressure due to its low reproductive capacity. Direct commercial fishing for the porbeagle, principally by Norwegian longliners, led to stock collapses in the eastern North Atlantic in the 1950s, and the western North Atlantic in the 1960s. The porbeagle continues to be caught throughout its range, both intentionally and as bycatch, with varying degrees of monitoring and management. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has assessed the porbeagle as vulnerable worldwide, and as either endangered or critically endangered in different parts of its northern range. (Full article...) The arrowhead dogfish (Deania profundorum) is a small little known deepwater dogfish of the family Centrophoridae. (Full article...)

List of dams and reservoirs

{{ Transclude list item excerpts as random slideshow | List of dams and reservoirs }} Avoid hatnotes and See also

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Hatta (Arabic: حتا) is an inland exclave of the emirate of Dubai in the United Arab Emirates. Formerly an Omani territory, its ownership was transferred to Dubai in or around 1850. (Full article...) Kaeng Suea Ten Dam (Thai: เขื่อนแก่งเสือเต้น, RTGS: Khuean Kaeng Suea Ten, pronounced [kʰɯ̀a̯n kɛ̀ŋ sɯ̌a̯ tên]) was a dam proposed for a site in the Phi Pan Nam Range, in Song District, Phrae Province, Thailand. It is near Mae Yom National Park, in a rural area of the Thai highlands. (Full article...) The Kambar-Ata-2 Hydro Power Plant (Kyrgyz: Камбар-Ата-2 ГЭСи, Russian: Камбаратинская ГЭС-2) is a hydroelectric power station on the river Naryn near Kara-Jygach, Toktogul District, Kyrgyzstan. When completed, it will have 3 individual Francis turbine-generators with a nominal output of around 120 MW each, with a combined generation capacity of 360 MW electricity. The first generator was operational on November 27, 2010. The power plant's dam is 60 m (197 ft) tall and it creates a 70,000,000 m3 (56,750 acre⋅ft) reservoir of which 8,000,000 m3 (6,486 acre⋅ft) is active (or useful) for power generation. (Full article...) The Hjartdøla Power Station is a hydroelectric power station located in Hjartdal, Telemark, Norway. It operates at an installed capacity of 120 MW, with an average annual production of about 410 GW·h. (Full article...) The International Diversion Dam (or simply the International Dam) is a diversion dam on the Rio Grande in Ciudad Juárez. The dam is operated by the International Boundary and Water Commission, and diverts water into the Acequia Madre for use in irrigation in Mexico. Water is diverted under the terms of the 1906 treaty on usage of Rio Grande water between the United States and Mexico. (Full article...) The Achelous (Greek: Αχελώος, Ancient Greek: Ἀχελῷος Akhelôios), also Acheloos, is a river in Epirus, western Greece. It is 220 km (137 mi) long. It formed the boundary between Acarnania and Aetolia of antiquity. It empties into the Ionian Sea. In ancient times its spirit was venerated as the river god Achelous. Herodotus, taking notice of the shoreline-transforming power of the Acheloos River, even compared it to the Nile in this respect: :'There are other rivers as well which, though not as large as the Nile, have had substantial results. In particular (although I could name others), there is the Achelous, which flows through Acarnania into the sea and has already turned half the Echinades islands into mainland.' (2.10, trans. Waterfield) It is said to have been called more anciently Thoas, Axenus and Thestius. (Full article...) Župica Lake (Serbian: Жупица језеро, romanized: Župica jezero) is an artificial lake of Bosnia and Herzegovina on the Unac River. The Unac River rises beneath Šator mountain, flows through the municipality of Drvar and finally meets Una River in Martin Brod. It's dammed to form small Prekajsko Lake and a few kilometers downstream larger Župica Lake, before it reach town of Drvar in the municipality of Drvar. The lake is located upstream from Drvar. Župica Dam is 24.75 metres high, with a curtain length of 692 metres and a surface volume of 127,777 square metres. (Full article...) The La Viña Dam, officially known as the Antonio Medina Allende Dam, is an arch dam on the Los Sauces River in San Alberto Department of Córdoba Province, Argentina. Construction on the dam began in 1938 and it was completed in 1944. The 16 MW (21,000 hp) power station was later connected to the grid on 28 February 1959. Aside from generating hydroelectric power, water stored by the dam is used to irrigate around 24,000 ha (59,000 acres) of farmland. (Full article...) Pedu Lake (Malay: Tasik Pedu) is a man-made lake located in Padang Terap District, Kedah, Malaysia. It covers an area of 75 km². (Full article...) The El Quimbo Dam is a concrete faced rock-fill dam (CFRD) and hydroelectric power facility in the Huila Department of southwestern-central Colombia, approximately 69 kilometres (43 mi) south of the city of Neiva, on the Magdalena River. It is located about 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) upstream from the confluence of the Páez River with the Magdalena River. Its works were officially opened on February 25, 2011 in the presence of President Juan Manuel Santos. It is one of the largest infrastructure projects in the country. The project was completed 4 years later, in late 2015. The powerhouse near the base of the dam has an installed capacity of 400 MW, which is expected to achieve an average energy generation of 2,216 gigawatt-hours (7,980 TJ)/year, with a dam that will have a live storage of 1,824 million cubic metres (1,479,000 acre⋅ft) and an inundated area 8,250 hectares (20,400 acres). The objective is to enhance the energy security and stability of the Colombian electricity supply, meeting about 8% of energy demand in Colombia with energy prospects of 1,650 gigawatt-hours (5,900 TJ) to 2034. Environmental license to implement the project was granted by Colombia's Environment Ministry, which was announced by Alvaro Uribe, the then President of Colombia, in May 2009. It is the first private sector hydro project to be built in Colombia under a new government policy. Apart from implementing the project, environmental issues that are to be addressed by the Emgesa, the project developer, are compensatory afforestation, compensation to project-affected people (no indigenous people are affected) and the protection of water supplies. Emgesa will receive, under a 20-year power contract authorized by Colombia's Comision de Regulacion de Energia y Gas (CREG), a price of US$14 per megawatt-hour for the power sold to the department. It is also intended to sell the electricity to neighbouring countries, thus boosting the national economy. The project is estimated to cost around $837 million, invested by Spanish utility Endesa, through its Colombian subsidiary Emgesa. (Full article...) Wadi Shawka (literally 'powerful wadi') is a seasonal watercourse in the Hajar Mountains of Ras Al Khaimah, in the United Arab Emirates. Famous locally for the Shawka Dam, a renowned beauty spot and destination for outdoor sports, the wadi has long been an agricultural area and alongside existing farms, and many abandoned settlements exist on the sides of the wadi. The wadi enjoys unusually high rainfall of some 120mm per annum. (Full article...) The Chungju Dam is a gravity dam on the Namhan River, 6 km (4 mi) northeast of Chungju in Chungcheongbuk-do Province, South Korea. The purpose of the dam is flood control, water supply and hydroelectric power generation. Construction on the dam began in 1978 and was complete in 1985. The 98 m (322 ft) tall dam withholds a reservoir of 2,750,000,000 m3 (2,229,461 acre⋅ft) and supplies water to a 400 MW power station. (Full article...) The Wadi Qattara Dam, also referred to as Gattara or Al-Qattarah, is a clay-fill embankment dam located on Wadi Al-Qattara, 33 km (21 mi) east of Benghazi in Libya. Together with a secondary dam located 10 km (6 mi) downstream at and seven drop structures, the scheme was constructed after floods damaged the Benghazi area in 1938 and 1954. They were also constructed for irrigation water supply. Construction of the dams began in 1968 and was completed in 1971. However, a flood in 1979 severely damaged the main dam and destroyed the secondary dam downstream. The main dam was rehabilitated and the secondary dam was replaced with a rock-fill dam between 2000 and 2004 at a cost of US$30 million. The main dam was heightened 7 m (23 ft) and its total discharge capacity was increased to 240 m3/s (8,476 cu ft/s). Both dams were designed by Coyne et Bellier. (Full article...) The Agusan Hydroelectric Plant, the downstream facility of two proposed plants, was constructed in Damilag, Manolo Fortich, Bukidnon to serve the immediate domestic and industrial requirements of the area. The watershed is small, and covers an area of around 25 km2 at the diversion dam. The run-of-river plant consists of two 800-kW turbine generators that use water from the Agusan River to generate electricity. It is connected to the local distribution grid Cepalco through the Transco distribution line. (Full article...) Milluni (Aymara millu light brown, reddish, fair-haired, dark chestnut, -ni suffix to indicate ownership, "the one that has got a brown colour") is a lake on the western side of the Cordillera Real of Bolivia located in the La Paz Department, Pedro Domingo Murillo Province, El Alto Municipality, north of El Alto. The lake is situated at a height of 4,565 metres (14,977 ft) south of the mountain Wayna Potosí, at the foot of Chacaltaya. It is about 1.83 km long and 1 km at its widest point. The surface is 2.37 km2 (0.92 sq mi). At the south side there is a dam. Milluni Lake is also called Milluni Grande (Spanish for big) in order to distinguish it from a smaller, half moon shaped lake next to it in the north, Milluni Chico (Spanish for small), which is situated at a height of 4,585 m. (Full article...) The Bumbuna Dam is a concrete-face rock-fill dam on the Seli River near Bumbuna in Tonkolili District, Sierra Leone, and 350 kilometres (220 mi) from the capital of Freetown, the main consumer. The country's first hydroelectric dam, it supports a 50-megawatt (67,000 hp) power station. The site for the dam at Bumbuna Falls was first identified in 1971, and construction was begun in 1975. Work was halted in May 1997, about 85% completed, due to the Sierra Leone Civil War, and did not restart until 2005. The project was completed and went online in 2009. Nearly a third of the dam's US$327 million cost ($103 million) was supplied by the African Development Bank. A 26 January 2005 report noted that 33 villages would be affected by the dam, although only one (of 16 households and 135 people) would require resettlement. The dam has a maximum height of 87 metres (285 ft), a length of 400 metres (1,300 ft) at the crest and a volume of 2,500,000 cubic metres (88,000,000 cu ft). The volume of the reservoir created is 410,000,000 cubic metres (1.4×1010 cu ft), 428,000,000 cubic metres (1.51×1010 cu ft) or 480,000,000 cubic metres (1.7×1010 cu ft). There are two Francis turbines, each rated for 25 megawatts (34,000 hp). After completion, the project has been plagued with problems, and barely produces 10 megawatts (13,000 hp) or 25 megawatts (34,000 hp) as of 2013. A second phase is planned, for a 110-megawatt (150,000 hp) power station. In June 2011, the government announced it had awarded the $750 million Phase II project to Joule Africa, a UK-based company. This will entail a second dam and plant. Construction was set to begin in 2014 and continue on until at least 2017. (Full article...) The Peñitas Dam, also known as Ángel Albino Corzo, is a dam with a hydro-electric power station on the river Rio Grijalva, 83 km south west of the city of Villahermosa, lying in the municipality of Ostuacán in the state of Chiapas in southern Mexico. The power station has an installed production effect of 420 MW from four turbines, and an annual production of 2.035 TWh. (Full article...) Warawara (Aymara warawara star, Hispanicized spellings Huara Huara, Huarahuara), often spelled Wara Wara, is a lake in the Tunari National Park in Bolivia. It is located in the Cochabamba Department, Chapare Province, Sacaba Municipality. Warawara lies north east of the city Cochabamba and north of Alalay Lake. The lake is situated 4,105 metres (13,468 ft) high. It is 0.8 km long and 0.5 km at its widest point. (Full article...) The Upamayo Dam (possibly from Quechua upa calm, silent; mute, mayu river) is a dam at Lake Junin, the largest lake entirely in Peru. It is located on the border of the Junín Region, Junín Province, Ondores District, and the Pasco Region, Pasco Province, Vicco District. The dam was erected in 1936. It is 10 m (33 ft) high and 96 m (105 yd) long. It is operated by Centromín Perú. The reservoir has a capacity of 556,000,000 m3 (451,000 acre⋅ft). (Full article...) The Cerros Colorados Complex is a group of dams and hydroelectricity generation facilities on the lower valley of the Neuquén River, in Neuquén, Argentina. (Full article...)

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The Wadi Ghan Dam is a rock-fill embankment dam located on Wadi Al-Hira, 14 km (9 mi) northeast of Gharyan in the Jabal al Gharbi District of Libya. Completed in 1982, the primary purpose of the dam is water supply for irrigation. (Full article...) The King Talal Dam is a large dam in the hills of northern Jordan, across the Zarqa River. The dam was started in 1971, with the original construction being completed in 1978 at a height of 92.5 meters. The original dam cost $46 million and was partially funded by a $16.8 million loan from the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development and a $5.6 million grant from the Abu Dhabi Fund. Energoprojekt of Yugoslavia was the consultant and Planum of Yugoslavia was the contractor. In 1984, to meet the country's increased water demands, work to raise the dam to a height of 106 meters was begun, a project that was completed in 1988. The dam is named after king Talal of Jordan. The main purpose of the dam is to store winter rains and treated wastewater from Amman and Zarqa treated in the As Samra plant for irrigation in the Jordan Valley. The dam irrigates about 17,000 hectares and supports the livelihood of 120,000 people. (Full article...) The Meghri hydroelectric project (also known as the Meghri Dam or Aras Watershed Dam) is a hydroelectric project planned on the Aras River near Armenia's southern town of Meghri on the Armenia–Iran border. The joint Iranian–Armenia project was proposed in the 1990s and was discussed between Iranian and Armenian authorities. Intergovernmental agreements between Armenia and Iran were signed in 2007 and 2008. On 14 April 2009, energy ministries of Armenia and Iran signed a memorandum on financing construction of the Meghri power station of Armenian side. The dam and power stations construction contract was signed on 16 October 2010 with Farab Sepasad Company. A ceremony on 17 November 2012, attended by Iran's Minister of Energy and the Armenian President, officially began construction. The basic studies were carried out by Arm-Hydroenergo-Project Company and Mahab-E-Qods Consulting Engineers Company in 1999. The Meghri station was to be operated by Iran for 15 years after which it will be returned to Armenia free of charge. However, construction has been delayed. As of 2017, the Armenian government’s Deputy Minister of Energy Infrastructures and Natural Resources Hayk Harutyunyanays said "Although the agreement has long been in force, the Iranian company has not made any investments to this day, so the governments of Armenia and Iran have to look for another investor." The project is expected to cost US$400 million. (Full article...) The Hermitage Dam is a concrete gravity dam on the Wag Water River near Stony Hill in Saint Andrew Parish, Jamaica. The primary purpose of the dam is to provide municipal water to nearby Kingston and Saint Andrew Parish. Construction on the dam began in 1924 and it was inaugurated on 4 May 1927. It is owned by the National Water Commission. (Full article...) The Paute Dam, also known as the Daniel Palacios Dam and the Amaluza Dam, is a hydroelectric dam in Ecuador. It is located on the Paute River, 125 kilometres (78 mi) from Cuenca. After the privatization of power generation that began in 1996 under the government of Sixto Durán Ballén, the dam passed into the hands of the company Hidropaute SA and then returned to state ownership during the government of Rafael Correa when Hidropaute became part of the Ecuador Electricity Corporation (Corporación Eléctrica del Ecuador, CELEC). Paute was constructed between 1976 and 1983 by Thyssenkrupp AG on the Paute River and designed on the premise that it would be erected downstream of the Mazar Dam. The Paute Dam's supports the 1,075 megawatts (1,442,000 hp) Molina Power Station. In late 2009, low water levels at the dam were the primary cause of an electricity crisis in Ecuador. (Full article...) The Sup'ung Dam (traditional Chinese: 水豐水庫; simplified Chinese: 水丰水库; Korean: 수풍댐(水豊댐)), also referred to as the Shuifeng Dam and originally the Suihō Dam, is a gravity dam on the Yalu River between Kuandian Manchu Autonomous County, Liaoning Province in China and Sakju County, North Pyongan Province in North Korea. The dam was constructed by the Japanese between 1937 and 1943 in order to generate electricity and has been repaired and renovated several times throughout the years, mainly due to spillway damage from flooding. During the Korean War, the dam was bombed by the United Nations Command three separate times in order to disrupt power generation for the North Koreans. At the time of its completion, the dam was the largest in Asia, and power station was third-largest (after Hoover Dam and Wilson Dam) hydroelectric power station in the world. It is still the largest hydroelectric power station on the Yalu (Korean: Amnok) River. Power produced at the dam's main 630 MW power station is evenly shared between China and North Korea. The dam is featured on the national emblem of North Korea. (Full article...) The La Viña Dam, officially known as the Antonio Medina Allende Dam, is an arch dam on the Los Sauces River in San Alberto Department of Córdoba Province, Argentina. Construction on the dam began in 1938 and it was completed in 1944. The 16 MW (21,000 hp) power station was later connected to the grid on 28 February 1959. Aside from generating hydroelectric power, water stored by the dam is used to irrigate around 24,000 ha (59,000 acres) of farmland. (Full article...) The Capanda Dam is a hydroelectric dam on the Kwanza River in Malanje Province, Angola. Built in 1987–2007 by the Russian company Tekhnopromexport, general designer - the institute Hydroproject (Chief Engineer - Ph.D Fedosov V.E.) The facility generates power by utilizing four turbines and 130 megawatts (170,000 hp) each, totalling the installed capacity to 520 megawatts (700,000 hp) . Total cost of US$4 billion. An additional cost of more than US$400 million was spent in repairing the damage caused during UNITA's occupation of the area at the time of the Angolan Civil War in 1992 and 1999. (Full article...) Tel-Yeruham Dam, also known as, Yeruham Dam is a masonry dam situated on the Revivim Stream, a tributary of the HaBesor Stream, in Yeruham, Southern District, Israel. The dam has many purposes which include flood control, irrigation, municipal water supply, tourism and recreation. It impounded Lake Yeruham between 1953 and 1954. In 1974 the area around the lake was improved with plants and facilities to improve recreation. (Full article...) The Paatsjoki River hydroelectric power plants are a series of hydroelectric installations on the Paatsjoki River. (Full article...) Mare aux Vacoas is the largest reservoir in Mauritius. It is located in Plaines Wilhems, in the southwest of the island, to the south of the town of Curepipe. It has a capacity of 25,890,000 cubic metres (914,000,000 cu ft) and provides water to the upper Plaines Wilhems and to Moka. It was constructed in 1885. (Full article...) Beris Dam (Malay: Empangan Beris) is a water supply dam located in Sik District, Kedah, Malaysia. The dam is a concrete-faced rockfill dam located in a narrow valley along Beris River, 1.6 km upstream from the river's confluence with Muda River. The dam was completed in 2004 at a cost of RM360 million and is used for regulating the flow of water along the Muda River basin to augment water provision for irrigation of paddy or upland crops, for domestic and industrial water supply and other uses. The reservoir at its normal pool level covers an area of 13.7 km square whilst at maximum pool level inundates an area of 16.1 km square. It has a gross storage capacity of 122.4 million cubic metres with an effective storage of 144 million cubic metres. (Full article...) Klang Gates Dam (Malay: Empangan Klang Gates) is a dam in Ulu Klang, Gombak District, Selangor, Malaysia. It is also known as the Bukit Tabur Dam. Completed in 1958, the dam is the first dam in Malaysia for water supply. It is a concrete arch dam with a spillway in the centre. The reservoir impounded by the dam is one of the major sources of drinking water for residents of the Klang Valley, where the national capital, Kuala Lumpur, is located. The dam's water storage capacity is 25,104 million liters. The Bukit Nanas water treatment plant takes raw water from this reservoir and produces 145 million liters of treated water per day. During the 2014 water crisis, capacity dropped as low as 54%, providing only approximately 80 days of water supply. Beside the dam is Klang Gate Ridge, the largest quartz ridge in the world. Split into two sections known as Bukit Tabur West and Bukit Tabur East, the ridge is 200m wide and has a length of 22km. It is unique for its sheer size as well as for its four types of quartz formations. The ridge is rich in vegetation, supporting at least 265 plant species including 5 endemic ones. A rare animal, the serow (a mountain goat), is also found on the ridge. (Full article...) The Chixoy Dam (Spanish: Planta Hidroeléctrica Chixoy) is a reinforced concrete dam and power plant spanning the Chixoy River between the Departments of Baja Verapaz, El Quiché and Alta Verapaz, Guatemala. It is the largest structure of its kind in the country. It was built between 1976 and 1985 and generates approximately 15% of the country's electricity. The dam's construction was very controversial and displaced many indigenous Maya Achi peoples. Government forced relocations resulted in the Río Negro massacres which claimed up to 5,000 lives between 1980 and 1982. (Full article...) The Lower Se San 2 Dam (also: Lower Sesan 2 Dam and Han Se San 2 Dam) is a hydroelectric dam under development on the Se San River in Stung Treng Province, northeastern Cambodia. The Se San River is a major tributary of the Mekong River. The dam site is located 25 kilometres (16 mi) east of the provincial capital, also named Stung Treng. The first turbine began producing electricity in November 2017. The dam was officially opened on December 18, 2018. (Full article...) The Al-Wehda Dam (سد الوحدة, Sadd Al-Weḥda, Unity Dam), formerly known as Maqarin Dam, is a 110 m (360 ft) roller-compacted concrete gravity dam on the Yarmouk River on the border between Syria and Jordan. It can hold up to 115,000,000 m3 (93,000 acre⋅ft) water and is designed to provide Jordan with water for both human consumption and agriculture. Water from the reservoir is diverted through a diversion weir at Addassiyah downstream of the Al-Wehda dam to the King Abdullah Canal where it is mixed with other freshwater sources. Some of the water from the canal is then pumped to Amman to be used as drinking water, after being treated in the Zai water treatment plant. The discharge of effluents from adjacent agricultural lands has caused algae growth and eutrophication especially in spring. Construction was funded by the Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development (80%), the Abu Dhabi Development Fund (10%) and the Government of Jordan (10%). In February 2004 King Abdullah II of Jordan and Syrian President Bashar al-Assad launched the construction of the dam. Turkey's Ozaltin Company constructed 60 per cent of the dam, while the remaining 40 per cent were carried out by Marwan Alkurdi Company and the National Company for Roads and Bridges. The sharing of the waters of the Yarmouk River between the two countries is governed by a 1987 treaty that set up a Jordanian-Syrian Yarmouk River Basin Higher Committee. The agreement was renewed in 2001 when the design of the dam was modified, reducing the storage capacity from 480 to 115 million cubic meters, and removing a hydropower plant that had initially been foreseen from the plans. According to a statement made by the Jordanian Minister of Water and Irrigation, Mousa Jamani, in April 2012 Syria violates the water sharing agreement, because Syrian farmers downstream of the dam use more than the 6 million cubic meters per year that they are entitled to for irrigation along the riverbank. The Minister also said that "since the agreement was signed, the number of Syrian dams increased from 26 to 48, while around 3,500 wells were drilled to pump water from the river basin", thus decreasing the amount of water flowing into the dam's reservoir. Until the 1960s, the Yarmouk River’s flow used to reach 16 cubic meters per second, but has since dropped to only one cubic meter per second. (Full article...) Sunkoshi Small Hydropower Plant is located in Dhuskun of Sindhupalchok District in central Nepal. It downstream where the Sunkoshi and Bhotekoshi Rivers meet. Construction on the plant began in 2003 and it was complete in 2005. The plant is a Run- Of- River project with installed capacity of 2.5 MW, design flow of 2.7 m3/s and gross head of 124.5m. This is only project in Nepal to utilize pressurized Glass Fibre reinforced Plastic (GRP) pipe for flow conduction. The plant has two units with Turgo turbine (2 *1250 KW). The power is evacuated via 33kVA transmission line to switch-yard of Sunkoshi Hydropower Station (9MW) The plant was completely submerged by 2014 Sunkoshi blockage. (Full article...) The Nuevo Mundo Dam is an embankment dam on the Moa River about 12 km (7.5 mi) south of Moa in Holguín Province, Cuba. The purpose of the dam is municipal water supply and hydroelectric power generation. The 75.5 m (248 ft) tall dam was completed in 1985. The 2 MW power station at the base of the dam was commissioned in 2010. (Full article...) The Yenikend Hydro Power Plant is one of Azerbaijan's largest hydro power plant having an installed electric capacity of 150 megawatts (200,000 hp). (Full article...) The Upamayo Dam (possibly from Quechua upa calm, silent; mute, mayu river) is a dam at Lake Junin, the largest lake entirely in Peru. It is located on the border of the Junín Region, Junín Province, Ondores District, and the Pasco Region, Pasco Province, Vicco District. The dam was erected in 1936. It is 10 m (33 ft) high and 96 m (105 yd) long. It is operated by Centromín Perú. The reservoir has a capacity of 556,000,000 m3 (451,000 acre⋅ft). (Full article...)

List of mountain ranges

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The Spenser Mountains is a topographic landform in the northern South Island of New Zealand. Located at the southern end of the Nelson Lakes National Park and north of the Lewis Pass they form a natural border between the Canterbury and Tasman regions. Several peaks are named after characters in Edmund Spenser’s allegorical poem, The Faerie Queene. Many of the early explorers were evidently literate men. For example, Frederick Weld (a surveyor) named Lake Tennyson; William Travers (a solicitor) named the Spensers and Faerie Queene; Julius Haast named Mt Una. Within the range prominent peaks include Mount Una and Mount Humboldt. The Spenser Mountains are the northern limit of the glaciers within the Southern Alps. Much of the forest cover is beech/podocarp with understory of a variety of ferns and shrubs; crown fern (Lomaria discolor) is one of the dominant understory ferns. (Full article...) The Lesser Caucasus or Lesser Caucasus Mountains, also called Caucasus Minor, is the second of the two main ranges of the Caucasus Mountains, of length about 600 km (370 mi). The western portion of the Lesser Caucasus overlaps and converges with east Turkey and northwest Iran. It runs parallel to the Greater Caucasus, at a distance averaging about 100 km (62 mi) south from the Likhi Range (Georgia) and limits east Turkey from the north and north-east. It is connected to the Greater Caucasus by the Likhi Range (Georgia) and separated from it by the Kolkhida Lowland (Georgia) in the west and Kura-Aras Lowland (Azerbaijan) (by the Kura River) in the east. (Full article...) Sredna Gora (Bulgarian: Средна гора [ˈsrɛdnɐ ɡoˈra]) is a mountain range in central Bulgaria, situated south of and parallel to the Balkan Mountains and extending from the river Iskar to the west and the elbow of river Tundzha north of the city of Yambol to the east. Sredna Gora is 285 km long, reaching 50 km at its greatest width. Its highest peak is Golyam Bogdan at 1,604 m (5,262 ft). It is part of the Srednogorie mountain chain system, which extends longitudinally across the most country from west to east, between the Balkan Mountains and the Sub-Balkan valleys to the north and the Kraishte, Rila and the Upper Thracian Plain to the south. The mountain is divided into three parts by the rivers Topolnitsa and Stryama — Ihtimanska Sredna Gora to the west, Sashtinska Sredna Gora in the center and Sarnena Sredna Gora to the east. Compared to most other mountain ranges in Bulgaria, Sredna Gora has lower average altitude, which determines higher temperatures and lower precipitation. There is an abundance of mineral springs all over Sredna Gora with many spa resorts, such as Hisarya, Starozagorski bani, Pavel Banya, etc. Sredna Gora is rich in mineral resources and especially copper. The economy is well developed. The region is an important national hub of copper extraction and processing industry, as well as of optical industry, both centered in and around the town of Panagyurishte. The largest city in Sredna Gora is Stara Zagora, one of the biggest economic centers of Bulgaria. Sredna Gora has been continuously inhabited for thousands of years. In the 5th millennium BC it was largest mining center in Europe, extracting significant amounts of copper. The mountain range was among the centers of the ancient Thracian civilization, with numerous burial and cult remains being preserved from that period. The renown Thracian Panagyurishte Treasure has been discovered in Sredna Gora. In the Middle Ages the mountain range was part of the Bulgarian Empire since the early 8th century until it was conquered by the Ottoman Turks during the Bulgarian–Ottoman wars in the late 14th century. During the Ottoman rule Sredna Gora was an important center of resistance and the Bulgarian National Revival. It was the focal point of the April Uprising of 1876. Although many settlements in the region were destroyed in the aftermath of the rebellion, it had a decisive role for the subsequent Liberation of Bulgaria in 1878. (Full article...) The Aravalli Range (also spelled Aravali) is a mountain range in Northern-Western India, running approximately 670 km (420 mi) in a south-west direction, starting near Delhi, passing through southern Haryana, Rajasthan, and ending in Ahmedabad Gujarat. The highest peak is Guru Shikhar on Mount Abu at 1,722 m (5,650 ft). The Aravalli Range is arguably the oldest geological feature on Earth, having its origin in the Proterozoic era. The Aravalli Range is rich in natural resources and serves as check to the growth of the western desert. (Full article...) The Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians, also called the Ridge and Valley Province or the Valley and Ridge Appalachians, are a physiographic province of the larger Appalachian Highlands division. The physiographic province is divided into three sections: the Hudson Valley, the Central, and the Tennessee. The river valleys were areas of indigenous settlements for thousands of years. In the historic period, the Cherokee people had towns along many of the rivers in western South Carolina and North Carolina, as well as on the western side of the Appalachian Mountains in present-day Tennessee. Similarly, the Catawba people occupied areas along the upper Catawba River in Western North Carolina, to the east of Cherokee County. The ridge and valley system presents an important obstacle to east–west land travel even with today's technology. It was a nearly insurmountable barrier to European-American migrants who walked or rode horses traveling west to settle the Ohio Country, and later the Northwest Territory and Oregon Country. In the era when animal power dominated transportation, there was no safe way to cross east–west in the middle of the range; crossing was only possible nearer its extremes except for a few rough passages opened mid-range during the colonial era, including Cumberland Gap, Braddock's Road, and Forbes Road. These were later improved as America's first National Roads, including Wilderness Road, Cumberland Road, Lincoln Highway, designated as U.S. Route 40 and U.S. Route 30 in later years. Early settlers of Ohio Country tended to enter it via the Ohio River; river systems were the most important transportation corridors. It was difficult in the late 19th and 20th centuries to construct railroads and modern highways through this area. (Full article...) The Kitzbühel Alps (German: Kitzbüheler Alpen or Kitzbühler Alpen) are a mountain range of the Central Eastern Alps surrounding the town of Kitzbühel in Tyrol, Austria. Geologically they are part of the western slate zone (greywacke zone). (Full article...) The Pahranagat Range is a mountain range in Lincoln County, Nevada. (Full article...) The Camelsfoot Range is a sub-range of the Chilcotin Ranges subdivision of the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains in British Columbia. The Fraser River forms its eastern boundary. The range is approximately 90 km at its maximum length and less than 30 km wide at its widest. (Full article...) The Santa Ana Mountains are a short peninsular mountain range along the coast of Southern California in the United States. They extend for approximately 61 miles (98 km) southeast of the Los Angeles Basin largely along the border between Orange and Riverside counties. (Full article...) Jakupica (Macedonian: Јакупица, Albanian: Jakupicë) or Mokra (Macedonian: Мокра, Albanian: Mokër) is a mountain range in the central part of North Macedonia. The headwaters of the Axios river (Ancient Greek: Ἀξιός), mentioned by Homer (Il. 21.141, Il. 2.849) as the home of the Paeonians allies of Troy, spring from its flanks. (Full article...) The Pontic Mountains or Pontic Alps (Turkish: Kuzey Anadolu Dağları, meaning North Anatolian Mountains) form a mountain range in northern Anatolia, Turkey. They are also known as the Parhar Mountains in the local Turkish and Pontic Greek languages. The term Parhar originates from a Hittite word meaning "high" or "summit". In ancient Greek, the mountains were called the Paryadres or Parihedri Mountains. (Full article...) The Highwood Mountains are an island range (sub-range of the Rockies entirely surrounded by prairie) which cover approximately 4,659 km2 (1,799 sq mi) of the Central Montana Alkalic Province in north central Montana in the U.S. They are in Chouteau, Judith Basin and Cascade counties and lie east of Great Falls and Benton Lake National Wildlife Refuge, at the northern end of the Lewis and Clark National Forest. The mountains were included in Highwood Mountains National Forest until 1908, when the unit became part of Lewis and Clark National Forest. Nearby are Highwood, Montana and the Missouri River above the mouth of the Marias River. The highest point in the Highwood Mountains is Highwood Baldy at 2338 meters (7670 ft). The area has volcanic origins and is rich in potash. Many of the extrusive rocks and some of the dike rocks contain abundant phenocrysts of a clear analcime that appears to be primary. Pseudoleucite is an abundant constituent of many of the igneous rocks. The Shonkin Sag, a glacial meltwater channel, borders the Highwood Mountains to the north. A dense stream network crosses the mountains. Riparian areas are rich with willow, dogwood, water birch, cottonwood and other water-loving plants. The land cover is a mosaic of conifers, deciduous trees, grass, and rock. (Full article...) The Mosquito Range (elevation approximately 14,000 ft) is a high mountain range in the Rocky Mountains of central Colorado in the United States. The peaks of the range form a ridge running north–south for roughly 40 mi (64 km) from southern Summit County on the north end, then along the boundary between Lake and Park Counties. The ranges forms a high barrier separating the headwaters of the Arkansas River near Leadville from South Park and the headwaters of the South Platte River near Fairplay. The highest peak in the range is Mount Lincoln at an elevation of 14,286 ft. Other fourteeners in the range are Quandary Peak (14,272 ft), Mount Bross (14,172 ft), Mount Democrat (14,148 ft), and Mount Sherman (14,036 ft). (Full article...) The Scandinavian Mountains or the Scandes is a mountain range that runs through the Scandinavian Peninsula. The western sides of the mountains drop precipitously into the North Sea and Norwegian Sea, forming the fjords of Norway, whereas to the northeast they gradually curve towards Finland. To the north they form the border between Norway and Sweden, reaching 2,000 metres (6,600 ft) high at the Arctic Circle. The mountain range just touches northwesternmost Finland but are scarcely more than hills at their northernmost extension at the North Cape (Nordkapp). The mountains are relatively high for a range so young and are very steep in places; Galdhøpiggen in South Norway is the highest peak in mainland Northern Europe, at 2,469 metres (8,100 ft); Kebnekaise is the highest peak on the Swedish side, at 2,104 m (6,903 ft), whereas the slope of Halti is the highest point in Finland, at 1,324 m (4,344 ft), although the peak of Halti is situated in Norway. The Scandinavian Montane Birch forest and grasslands terrestrial ecoregion is closely associated with the mountain range. (Full article...) The Caucasus Mountains is a mountain range at the intersection of Asia and Europe. Stretching between the Black Sea and the Caspian Sea, they are surrounded by the Caucasus region and are home to Mount Elbrus, the highest peak in Europe at 5,642 metres (18,510 ft) above sea level. The Caucasus Mountains include the Greater Caucasus in the north and the Lesser Caucasus in the south. The Greater Caucasus runs west-northwest to east-southeast, from the Western Caucasus on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea to Baku on the Caspian Sea, near Georgia. The Lesser Caucasus runs parallel to the Greater about 100 km (62 mi) south. The Greater and Lesser Caucasus ranges are connected by the Likhi Range, and to the west and east of the Likhi Range lie the Colchis Plain and the Kur-Araz Lowland respectively. The Meskheti Range is a part of the Lesser Caucasus system. In the southeast, the Aras River separates the Lesser Caucasus from the Talysh Mountains which runs through the Greater Azerbaijan region. The Lesser Caucasus and the Armenian Highland constitute the Transcaucasian Highland, which at their western end converges with the highland plateau of Eastern Anatolia. The Caucasus Mountains were part of the Silk Road. (Full article...) The Šar Mountains (Serbian and Macedonian: Шар Планина, romanized: Šar Planina; colloquially also Шара, romanized: Šara) or Sharr Mountains (Albanian: Malet e Sharrit) is a mountain range extending from southern Kosovo, to northwestern North Macedonia, to northeastern Albania. The sections in Kosovo, and in North Macedonia are national parks. Rugged and barren, the mountains are among the highest in the Balkans, with 30 peaks higher than 2,500 m (8,202 ft). (Full article...) The Sivalik Hills, also known as the Shivalik Hills and Churia Hills, are a mountain range of the outer Himalayas that stretches over about 2,400 km (1,500 mi) from the Indus River eastwards close to the Brahmaputra River, spanning the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent. It is 10–50 km (6.2–31.1 mi) wide with an average elevation of 1,500–2,000 m (4,900–6,600 ft). Between the Teesta and Raidāk Rivers in Assam is a gap of about 90 km (56 mi). The literal translation of "Sivalik" is 'tresses of Shiva'. Sivalik region is home to the Soanian archaeological culture. The hills are well known for their Neogene and Pleistocene aged vertebrate fossils. (Full article...) The Pentamerus Range (Danish: Pentamerus Bjerge) is a mountain range in far northwestern Greenland. Administratively this range is part of Avannaata municipality. The area of the range is uninhabited. This mountain chain was named after the Pentamerus fossils dating back to the Lower Silurian that have been found in it. (Full article...) The San Francisco Peaks (Navajo: Dookʼoʼoosłííd, Spanish: Sierra de San Francisco, Hopi: Nuva'tukya'ovi, Western Apache: Dził Tso, Keres: Tsii Bina, Southern Paiute: Nuvaxatuh, Havasupai-Hualapai: Hvehasahpatch/Huassapatch/Wik'hanbaja, Yavapai: Wi:mun Kwa, Zuni: Sunha K'hbchu Yalanne, Mojave: 'Amat 'Iikwe Nyava) are a volcanic mountain range in the San Francisco volcanic field in north central Arizona, just north of Flagstaff and a remnant of the former San Francisco Mountain. The highest summit in the range, Humphreys Peak, is the highest point in the state of Arizona at 12,637 feet (3,852 m) in elevation. The San Francisco Peaks are the remains of an eroded stratovolcano. An aquifer within the caldera supplies much of Flagstaff's water while the mountain itself is in the Coconino National Forest, a popular recreation site. The Arizona Snowbowl ski area is on the western slopes of Humphreys Peak, and has been the subject of major controversy involving several tribes and environmental groups. (Full article...) The Harz (German: [haːɐ̯ts] ⓘ) is a highland area in northern Germany. It has the highest elevations for that region, and its rugged terrain extends across parts of Lower Saxony, Saxony-Anhalt, and Thuringia. The name Harz derives from the Middle High German word Hardt or Hart (hill forest). The name Hercynia derives from a Celtic name and could refer to other mountain forests, but has also been applied to the geology of the Harz. The Brocken is the highest summit in the Harz with an elevation of 1,141.1 metres (3,744 ft) above sea level. The Wurmberg (971 metres (3,186 ft)) is the highest peak located entirely within the state of Lower Saxony. (Full article...) The Lower Himalayan Range (Nepali: पर्वत शृङ्खला parbat shrinkhalā) – also called the Middle Himalayas or Lesser Himalayas or Himachal – is a major east–west mountain range with elevations 3,700 to 4,500 m (12,000 to 14,500 feet) in the northernmost regions of the Indian subcontinent along the crest, paralleling the much higher High Himalayas range from the Indus River in Pakistan across northern India, Nepal and Bhutan but then the two ranges become increasingly difficult to differentiate east of Bhutan as the ranges approach the Brahmaputra River. The Himachal range also parallels the lower Shiwalik or Churia Range (Outer Himalaya) to the south. The Pir Panjal is the largest range of the Lesser Himalayas. (Full article...) Belgica Mountains is an isolated chain of mountains about 10 miles (16 km) long, standing 60 miles (97 km) east-southeast of the Sor Rondane Mountains in Queen Maud Land, in the Antarctic. The chain was discovered by the Belgian Antarctic Expedition (1957-1958) under Gaston de Gerlache, and named after the ship Belgica, commanded by his father, Lt. Adrien de Gerlache, leader of the Belgian Antarctic Expedition of 1897–99. (Full article...) The Sutton Range is a mountain range on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada, located in the area between the headwaters of the Nimpkish River and those of the White River. It has an area of 448 km2 and is a subrange of the Vancouver Island Ranges which in turn form part of the Insular Mountains. (Full article...) The Danakil Alps are a highland region in Ethiopia and Eritrea with peaks over 1000 metres in height and a width varying between 40 and 70 kilometres. The area is known in the Afar language as Arrata. The alps lie along the southern Red Sea to the east of the Danakil Depression and separate it from the sea. The alps are asymmetric in cross-section with a comparatively gentle rift escarpment facing the Red Sea and intense normal faulting on the inland side. In the northern part of the alps the basement rock is less elevated and there are many volcanic edifices, such as those forming the Nabro Volcanic Range. The largest of the Nabro Volcanic Range edifices are the Mallahle, Nabro, and Dubbi. The volcanic range extends northwestward to the Red Sea, ending with the Kod Ali volcano offshore. The Danakil Alps have been cut off from the sea since the late Pleistocene. (Full article...) The Ossipee Mountains are a small mountain range in the New England state of New Hampshire, United States. The remains of an ancient volcanic ring dike, they lie north of Lake Winnipesaukee, east of Squam Lake, and south of the Sandwich Range, the southernmost of the White Mountains. 2,990 ft (910 m) Mount Shaw is their highest point. (Full article...)

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In Peru the Cordillera Occidental is the western branch of the Andes. It bounds to the west with coastal plains or falls directly into the Pacific along cliffed coasts. To the east of Cordillera Occidental lies the Cordillera Central and the Cordillera Oriental of Peru. As with other parts of the Peruvian Andes the Cordillera Occedental bears evidence on the Andean orogeny. (Full article...) The White Mountains of California and Nevada are a triangular fault-block mountain range facing the Sierra Nevada across the upper Owens Valley. They extend for approximately 60 mi (97 km) as a greatly elevated plateau about 20 mi (32 km) wide on the south, narrowing to a point at the north, with elevations generally increasing south to north. The range's broad southern end is near the community of Big Pine, where Westgard Pass and Deep Springs Valley separate it from the Inyo Mountains. The narrow northern end is at Montgomery Pass, where U.S. Route 6 crosses. The Fish Lake Valley lies east of the range; the southeast part of the mountains are separated from the Silver Peak Range by block faulting across the Furnace Creek Fault Zone, forming a feeder valley to Fish Lake Valley. The range lies within the eastern section of the Inyo National Forest. (Full article...) The Sierra de Juárez, also known as the Sierra Juarez, is a mountain range located in Tecate Municipality and northern Ensenada Municipality, within the northern Baja California state of northwestern Mexico. It is a major mountain range in the long Peninsular Ranges System, that extends from Southern California down the Baja California Peninsula into Baja California Sur state. (Full article...) The Schober group (German: Schobergruppe) is a sub-range of the Hohe Tauern mountains in the Central Eastern Alps, on the border between the Austrian states of Tyrol (East Tyrol) and Carinthia. Most of the range is located inside Hohe Tauern national park. It is named after Mt. Hochschober, 3,242 metres (10,636 ft), though its highest peak is Mt. Petzeck at 3,283 metres (10,771 ft). (Full article...) The Kigluaik Mountains (Kiglawait in Inupiaq) are a 42-mile (68 km) mountain chain running east to west on western Alaska's Seward Peninsula. Its highest point is the summit of Mount Osborn, at 4,714 feet (1,437 meters) above sea level. This remote range is home to numerous isolated mountain lakes which have been shown to contain unique subspecies of Arctic char. Located in the Nome Census Area, Kigluaik Mountains are noted as the location of Grand Union Glacier, the only remaining active glacier in western Alaska. (Full article...) The Ötztal Alps (Italian: Alpi Venoste, German: Ötztaler Alpen) are a mountain range in the Central Eastern Alps, in the State of Tyrol in western Austria and the Province of South Tyrol in northern Italy. (Full article...) The Lillooet Icecap, also called the Lillooet Icefield or the Lillooet Crown, is a large icefield in the Pacific Ranges of the Coast Mountains in southwestern British Columbia, Canada. It is about 90 km (56 mi) northwest of the towns of Pemberton and Whistler, and about 175 km (109 mi) north of Vancouver, British Columbia. The Lillooet Icecap is one of the largest of several large icefields in the Pacific Ranges which are the largest temperate-latitude glacial fields in the world. At its maximum extent including its glacial tongues it measures 30 km (19 mi) east to west and 20 km (12 mi) north to south; its central icefield area is approximately 15 km (9 mi) in diameter. The Lillooet Icecap is the source of several major rivers which radiate out from it in a wheel pattern. The Lillooet River is fed by the Lillooet Glacier on the icefield's southern flank and runs southeast via Pemberton to Harrison Lake. The Bridge River is fed by the Bridge Glacier on the icefield's eastern flank and runs east to the town of Lillooet. On the icefield's north side are the Taseko River (a tributary of the Chilcotin River), the Lord and Tchaikazan Rivers (tributaries of the Taseko), and the Edmond River which feeds Chilko Lake, the source of the Chilko River, which like the Taseko is a tributary of the Chilcotin River. On the west side of the icecap are the sources of the Southgate River runs to Waddington Harbour at the head of Bute Inlet and shares a common delta with the Homathko River, and the Toba River, which runs to Toba Inlet. The divide between the Lillooet and Southgate Rivers is on the southwestern flank of the icefield and is named Ring Pass. This was investigated for a possible route for the Canadian Pacific Railway but the survey party led by Stanley Smith was lost and never found. The Stanley Smith Glacier and Frank Smith Glacier in the central area of the Lillooet Icecap are named in their memory. Southwest of Ring Pass is the Compton Névé, another large icecap. The Lillooet Icecap and Compton Névé form one contiguous icemass, but because they are two distinct massifs of the lower elevation and active glacial movement in Ring Pass they have been customarily considered to be separate. (Full article...) Saltfjellet is a mountain area in Nordland county, Norway that separates the two regions of Helgeland and Salten. It is also a cultural border between the Southern and Central parts of Sápmi. (Full article...) The Kolyma Mountains or Kolyma Upland (Russian: Колымское нагорье, romanized: Kolymskoye Nagorye), is a system of mountain ranges in northeastern Siberia, lying mostly within the Magadan Oblast, along the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk in the Kolyma region. It constitutes the watershed between the basins of Kolyma River and of the Sea of Okhotsk / Pacific Ocean. The range's highest point is Mount Nevskaya (гора Невская) in the Omsukchan Range at 1,828 meters (5,997 ft). (Full article...) The Sandia–Manzano Mountains are a substantial mountain area that defines the eastern edge of the middle Rio Grande Valley of central New Mexico. They are not only an attractive backdrop to greater Albuquerque, the largest metropolitan area in New Mexico, but their elevation changes provide recreational opportunities including winter skiing and cool summer hiking or picnicing, as compared to the desert grasslands, foothills, and Rio Grande Valley below. The entire mountain chain comprises three parts, arranged north to south: the Sandia Mountains, the Manzanita Mountains, and the Manzano Mountains. The Manzanita Mountains are a series of low-lying foothills that separate the Sandias from the Manzanos. The Sandia–Manzano Mountains are often considered to be the easternmost major range in the Basin and Range Province. A substantial distance gap of much lower elevation grasslands and savanna exists between the Sangre de Cristo Mountains and the Sandia Mountains, and climate conditions shift between both ranges. This distinction is further made by plant, animal, and insect species that are common in both the Sandia–Manzano Mountains and in other mountainous areas to the south, but diminish quickly in the mountains to the north. These include Quercus turbinella, Opuntia engelmannii, Aloysia wrightii, and the western diamondback rattlesnake. However, at higher elevations in the Sandia–Manzano Mountains, a strong climatically driven Rocky Mountain biotic element exists. (Full article...) The Escambray Mountains (Spanish: Sierra del Escambray) are a mountain range in the central region of Cuba, in the provinces of Sancti Spíritus, Cienfuegos and Villa Clara. (Full article...) The Eastern Alps are usually defined as the area east of a line from Lake Constance and the Alpine Rhine valley, up to the Splügen Pass at the Alpine divide, and down the Liro River to Lake Como in the south. The peaks and mountain passes are lower than the Western Alps, while the range itself is broader and less arched. (Full article...) The Cederberg mountains are located near Clanwilliam, approximately 300 km north of Cape Town, South Africa at about . The mountain range is named after the endangered Clanwilliam cedar (Widdringtonia wallichii), which is a tree endemic to the area. The mountains are noted for dramatic rock formations and San rock art. The Cederberg Wilderness Area is administered by CapeNature. Cederberg is now the generally accepted spelling for the area, which combines the English (Cedarberg) and Afrikaans (Sederberg) variants. (Full article...) The Karakoram (/ˌkɑːrəˈkɔːrəm, ˌkær-/) is a mountain range in the Kashmir region spanning the border of Pakistan, China, and India, with the northwestern extremity of the range extending to Afghanistan and Tajikistan. Most of the Karakoram mountain range falls under the jurisdiction of Gilgit-Baltistan, which is controlled by Pakistan. Its highest (and the world's second-highest) peak, K2, is located in Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan. It begins in the Wakhan Corridor (Afghanistan) in the west, encompasses the majority of Gilgit-Baltistan, Pakistan and extends into Ladakh (controlled by India) and Aksai Chin (controlled by China). The Karakoram is the second-highest mountain range on Earth and part of a complex of ranges that includes the Pamir Mountains, Hindu Kush, and Himalayas. The range contains 18 summits higher than 7,500 m (24,600 ft) in elevation, with four above 8,000 m (26,000 ft): K2 (8,611 m (28,251 ft) AMSL) (the second-highest peak on Earth), Gasherbrum I, Broad Peak, and Gasherbrum II. The range is about 500 km (311 mi) in length and is the most glaciated place on Earth outside the polar regions. The Siachen Glacier (76 km (47 mi) long) and Biafo Glacier (63 km (39 mi) long) are the second- and third-longest glaciers outside the polar regions. The Karakoram is bounded on the east by the Aksai Chin plateau, on the northeast by the edge of the Tibetan Plateau and on the north by the river valleys of the Yarkand and Karakash rivers beyond which lie the Kunlun Mountains. At the northwest corner are the Pamir Mountains. The southern boundary of the Karakoram is formed, west to east, by the Gilgit, Indus and Shyok rivers, which separate the range from the northwestern end of the Himalaya range proper. These rivers flow northwest before making an abrupt turn southwestward towards the plains of Pakistan. Roughly in the middle of the Karakoram range is the Karakoram Pass, which was part of a historic trade route between Ladakh and Yarkand that is now inactive. The Tashkurghan National Nature Reserve and the Pamir Wetlands National Nature Reserve in the Karalorun and Pamir mountains have been nominated for inclusion in UNESCO in 2010 by the National Commission of the People's Republic of China for UNESCO and have been tentatively added to the list. (Full article...) Queen Louise Land (Danish: Dronning Louise Land; Greenlandic: Nuna Dronning Louise) is a vast mountainous region located west of Dove Bay, King Frederik VIII Land, northeastern Greenland. Administratively it is part of the Northeast Greenland National Park zone. The highest point of Queen Louise Land is Gefiontinde, with a height of 2,364.3 m (7,757 ft), the highest of the Gefiontinder group of peaks located at . Geologically Queen Louise Land is made up of orthogneiss overlain by sedimentary rocks. (Full article...) The Salmon Mountains are a subrange of the Klamath Mountains in Siskiyou County, northwestern California. (Full article...) Blue Mountains are a range of rugged hills in West Otago, in southern New Zealand. They form a barrier between the valleys of the Clutha and Pomahaka Rivers. They lie between the towns of Tapanui and Lawrence and rise to 1019 metres (3280 ft). The Blue Mountains are home to one of the largest herds of wild fallow deer in the south island of New Zealand, hunting is permitted on Department of Conservation administered land. The early name for the range was Te Papanui, which was later corrupted to Tapanui. Early surveyors named it Mount Valpy after William Henry Valpy, an early settler in Dunedin. The name Blue Mountains was given by gold diggers during the Otago Gold Rush in the early 1860s after the Blue Mountains in New South Wales. (Full article...) The Olympic Mountains are a mountain range on the Olympic Peninsula of the Pacific Northwest of the United States. The mountains, part of the Pacific Coast Ranges, are not especially high – Mount Olympus is the highest summit at 7,980 ft (2,432 m); however, the eastern slopes rise precipitously out of Puget Sound from sea level, and the western slopes are separated from the Pacific Ocean by the low-lying 20 to 35 km (12 to 22 mi) wide Pacific Ocean coastal plain. These densely forested western slopes are the wettest place in the 48 contiguous states. Most of the mountains are protected within the bounds of Olympic National Park and adjoining segments of the Olympic National Forest. The mountains are located in western Washington in the United States, spread out across four counties: Clallam, Grays Harbor, Jefferson and Mason. Physiographically, they are a section of the larger Pacific Border province, which is in turn a part of the larger Pacific Mountain System. (Full article...) The Organ Mountains (also known as La Sierra de los Órganos) are a rugged mountain range in southern New Mexico in the Southwestern United States. Organ Mountains–Desert Peaks National Monument was declared a national monument on May 21, 2014. They lie 10 mi (16 km) east of the city of Las Cruces, in Doña Ana County. (Full article...) The West Mountains are a mountain range in the U.S. state of Idaho, spanning part of Boise and Payette national forests. The highest point in the range is Snowbank Mountain at an elevation of 8,320 feet (2,540 m) above sea level. The range is bordered to the east by the Payette River and the North Fork Payette River, which separate the range from the Boise Mountains. (Full article...) The Cottian Alps (/ˈkɒtiən ˈælps/; French: Alpes Cottiennes [alp kɔtjɛn]; Italian: Alpi Cozie [ˈalpi ˈkɔttsje]) are a mountain range in the southwestern part of the Alps. They form the border between France (Hautes-Alpes and Savoie) and Italy (Piedmont). The Fréjus Road Tunnel and Fréjus Rail Tunnel between Modane and Susa are important transportation arteries between France (Lyon, Grenoble) and Italy (Turin). (Full article...) Bezengi Wall, Pitsrula (Georgian: ბეზენგის კედელი; Russian: Безенгийская стена, also known as the Khalde Wall) is a 11-to-12 km (6.8-to-7.5 mi) long mountain range of the Greater Caucasus, in the Svaneti region of Georgia and Kabardino-Balkaria region of Russia. Highest section of the Central Caucasus. The highest point of the Bezengi Wall is 5,203-metre (17,070 ft) high mount Shkhara, the highest peak of Georgia. Notable peaks include Janga (5,085 m [16,683 ft]), Katyn-Tau (4,979 m [16,335 ft]), Shota Rustaveli Peak (4,960 m [16,270 ft]), Gistola (4,860 m [15,940 ft]), Lalveri (4,350 m [14,270 ft]) and Esenin Peak (4,310 m [14,140 ft]). Bezengi Wall surrounded by ice cliffs on either side. The geologic makeup of the mountains consists of grey granitoids. Bezengi Glacier lies on the northern slopes of the range and the Khalde Glacier and Shkhara Glacier located on the southern slopes. Avalanches occur each year. (Full article...) The Titiwangsa Mountains (Malay: Banjaran Titiwangsa; Jawi: بنجرن تيتيوڠسا‎, pronounced [ˈband͡ʒaˈran titiwaŋˈsa]), also known as Banjaran Besar (lit. 'main range') by locals, is the chain of mountains that forms the backbone of the Malay Peninsula. The northern section of the range is in southern Thailand, where it is known as Sankalakhiri Range (Thai: ทิวเขาสันกาลาคีรี; RTGS: Thio Khao Sankalakhiri; pronounced [tʰīw kʰǎw sǎn.kāːlāːkʰīːrīː]). The mountain range acts as a natural divider, dividing Peninsular Malaysia, as well as southernmost Thailand, into east and west coast regions. It also serves as a drainage divide of some major rivers of Peninsular Malaysia such as the Pahang, Perak, Kelantan, Klang and Muar. The length of mountain range is about 480 km from north to south. (Full article...) The Taurus Mountains (Turkish: Toros Dağları or Toroslar, Greek: Ταύρος) are a mountain complex in southern Turkey, separating the Mediterranean coastal region from the central Anatolian Plateau. The system extends along a curve from Lake Eğirdir in the west to the upper reaches of the Euphrates and Tigris rivers in the east. It is a part of the Alpide belt in Eurasia. (Full article...) The Atlantika Mountains, also known as the Alantika Mountains, are an extension of the Cameroon line of volcanic mountains, spanning the border between Nigeria and Cameroon. They lie to the southeast of Yola, the capital of Adamawa State in Nigeria, and southwest of the Mandara mountains. In Cameroon, they are part of the North Region. They are north of the Adamawa Plateau and west of the Faro National Park in Cameroon. The massif rises to about 1,300 metres (4,300 ft) above the Faro River, a tributary of the Benue River. The range includes a belt of volcanoes, most of which are inactive. The mountains' landscape includes outcrops of large granite boulders. The Atlantika Mountains are home to enclaves of higher-elevation Afromontane habitat, part of the Cameroonian Highlands forests ecoregion. The mountains are separated from other Afromontane regions by lower-elevation areas. Afromontane habitats include gallery forests along mountain stream courses. The gecko species Ancylodactylus alantika is found only in the Atlantika Mountains and the Hosséré Vokré plateau to the east. The line of mountains of which the Atlantika range is a part were taken as a natural boundary between Nigeria and Cameroon by the colonial powers. The Koma people took refuge in the mountains in the last half of the 19th century, apparently to avoid paying taxes to the colonial government. They remained unnoticed until 1980, when they were found by an Indian schoolteacher who was working for the government. Alantika means where Allah hasn't yet arrived in the Kanuri language, due to the Koma people keeping their own religions, despite being mostly surrounded by Muslims. (Full article...)

List of dams and reservoirs (Africa)

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Tendaho Dam is an earth-filled dam in the eastern Afar Region of Ethiopia. It is situated on the Awash River, and its reservoir also receives the output of the Mille River. The dam is a project of the Ethiopian Water Works Construction Enterprise (EWWCE). Project planning began in 2005, with construction occurring from 2010 to 2014. The dam is aimed at providing irrigation primarily for the Tendaho Sugar Factory sugar cane plantation., as well as drinking water for the region. Out of the 60,000 hectares of land planned to be irrigated, 10,000 would be allotted for social services and the community, and the remaining 50,000 hectares for cultivating sugar cane for the sugar factory. The nearest towns are Logiya, situated just north of the dam, and Semera, which has an airstrip (Semera Airport) and a university. (Full article...) Kiira Hydroelectric Power Station is a hydroelectric power station in Uganda, with an installed capacity of 200 megawatts (270,000 hp). (Full article...) The Gilgel Gibe I Dam is a rock-filled embankment dam on the Gilgel Gibe River in Ethiopia. It is located about 57 km (35 mi) northeast of Jimma in Oromia Region. The primary purpose of the dam is hydroelectric power production. The Gilgel Gibe I hydroelectric powerplant has an installed capacity of 184 MW, enough to power over 123,200 households. The dam is 1,700 m (5,600 ft) long and 40 m (130 ft) tall. Construction on the dam began in 1988 but work was halted in 1994. In 1995 construction restarted with a new construction firm. The power station was commissioned in 2004. Water from the dam is diverted through a 9.2 km (5.7 mi) long tunnel to an underground power station downstream. After power generation, the water is discharged back into the Gilgel Gibe River to flow downstream northwards for roughly 2 km, only to enter a 26 km (16 mi) long tunnel through a mountain ridge to an underground power station (Gilgel Gibe II Power Station) at the lower-lying Omo River. (Full article...) Djorf Torba Dam is a dam in Kenadsa District, Béchar Province, Algeria, crossing the Oued Guir about 50 kilometres (31 mi) west of the capital, Béchar. It is used for the purposes of irrigation and water supply. The area around the head of the dam features a number of notable ancient monuments. The dam has resulted in a significant reduction in the flow of Oued Guir and Oued Saoura in locations downstream of the dam. (Full article...) The Bujagali Power Station is a hydroelectric power station across the Victoria Nile that harnesses the energy of its namesake, the Bujagali Falls, in Uganda. Construction began in 2007 and concluded in 2012. It was officially inaugurated on 8 October 2012 by Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni and Aga Khan IV in the presence of African politicians and investors. The 250-megawatt power station was the largest hydroelectric energy source in Uganda when it was commissioned. However, the planned Karuma and Ayago power stations would be larger. The funding for the station was a source of some concern, as investors joined and departed from the project. As of July 2014, the plant was managed by Bujagali Energy Limited, which selected Italian contractor Salini Impregilo to develop the project. (Full article...) Bondels Dam is a reservoir outside of Karasburg in the ǁKaras Region of Namibia. Located 7 km west of Karas, it dams the Obub River and was built to enhance the recharge of the Bondels Dam aquifer. It has a capacity of 1.105 million cubic metres and was completed in 1959 while Namibia was known as South West Africa. (Full article...) The Kariba Dam is a double curvature concrete arch dam in the Kariba Gorge of the Zambezi river basin between Zambia and Zimbabwe. The dam stands 128 metres (420 ft) tall and 579 metres (1,900 ft) long. The dam forms Lake Kariba, which extends for 280 kilometres (170 mi) and holds 185 cubic kilometres (150,000,000 acre⋅ft) of water. (Full article...) The Aswan Dam, or more specifically since the 1980s, the Aswan High Dam, is one of the world's largest embankment dams, which was built across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt, between 1960 and 1970. When it was completed, it was the tallest earthen dam in the world, eclipsing the United States' Chatuge Dam. Its significance largely upstaged the previous Aswan Low Dam initially completed in 1902 downstream. Based on the success of the Low Dam, then at its maximum utilization, construction of the High Dam became a key objective of the new regime the Free Officers movement of 1952; with its ability to better control flooding, provide increased water storage for irrigation and generate hydroelectricity, the dam was seen as pivotal to Egypt's planned industrialization. Like the earlier implementation, the High Dam has had a significant effect on the economy and culture of Egypt. Before the High Dam was built, even with the old dam in place, the annual flooding of the Nile during late summer had continued to pass largely unimpeded down the valley from its East African drainage basin. These floods brought high water with natural nutrients and minerals that annually enriched the fertile soil along its floodplain and delta; this predictability had made the Nile valley ideal for farming since ancient times. However, this natural flooding varied, since high-water years could destroy the whole crop, while low-water years could create widespread drought and consequently famine. Both these events had continued to occur periodically. As Egypt's population grew and technology increased, both a desire and the ability developed to completely control the flooding, and thus both protect and support farmland and its economically important cotton crop. With the greatly increased reservoir storage provided by the High Aswan Dam, the floods could be controlled and the water could be stored for later release over multiple years. The Aswan Dam was designed by Nikolai Aleksandrovich Malyshev of the Moscow-based Hydroproject Institute. Designed for both irrigation and power generation, the dam incorporates a number of relatively new features, including a very deep grout curtain below its base. Although the reservoir will eventually silt in, even the most conservative estimates indicate the dam will give at least 200 years of service. (Full article...) Nyumba ya Mungu Dam is a Tanzanian, hydroelectric dam located in and operated in Mwanga District , Kilimanjaro Region. It was built in the late 1960s and is Kilimanjaro region's largest artificial water body. Nyumba ya Mungu Reservoir. The reservoir is shared with Moshi District of Kilimanjaro Region and Simanjiro District of Manyara Region. Nyumba ya Mungu means 'House of God'. Its installed capacity is 8 megawatts (11,000 hp). (Full article...) Mandraka Dam is a gravity dam on the Mandraka River near Mandraka in the Analamanga Region of Madagascar. The dam was constructed by a French firm by 1956 and creates Lake Mandraka. (Full article...) The Sidi El Barrak Dam is an embankment dam centred 18 km (11 mi) northeast of Tabarka and 2 km (1 mi) from the Mediterranean Sea on the Oued Zouara River in the Beja Governorate, Tunisia. Constructed between 1994 and 2000, the primary purpose of the dam is water supply. As part of the Sidi el Barrak Development Project, water stored in the dam is pumped to the Seyjame Dam, at a rate of 265,000,000 m3 (214,839 acre⋅ft) annually. This water is supplied to Tunis, Cap Bon and the Sahel including Sfax for municipal use as well as agricultural purposes. The entire project was completed in 2002. (Full article...) Mutange Dam, across Mutange River, is a manmade earth fill embarkment dam located in Chisina Village, 30 km east of Gokwe and 35 km northwest of Empress Mine, in the Midlands Province of Zimbabwe. Mutange Dam is 42 km by road from Gokwe and 49 km from Empress, 117 km from Kadoma and 146 km from Kwekwe via Empress (147 km via Zhombe Joel). It is owned and operated by the Ministry of Water Resources and Development. (Full article...) The Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam (GERD or TaIHiGe; Amharic: ታላቁ የኢትዮጵያ ሕዳሴ ግድብ, romanized: Tālāqu ye-Ītyōppyā Hidāsē Gidib, Tigrinya: ግድብ ሕዳሰ ኢትዮጵያ, Oromo: Hidha Haaromsaa Guddicha Itoophiyaa), formerly known as the Millennium Dam and sometimes referred to as the Hidase Dam (Amharic: ሕዳሴ ግድብ, romanized: Hidāsē Gidib, Oromo: Hidha Hidāsē), is a gravity dam on the Blue Nile River in Ethiopia. The dam is in the Benishangul-Gumuz Region of Ethiopia, about 14 km (9 mi) east of the border with Sudan. Constructed between 2011 and 2020, the dam's primary purpose is electricity production to relieve Ethiopia's acute energy shortage and to export electricity to neighbouring countries. With a planned installed capacity of 5.15 gigawatts, when completed, the dam would be the largest hydroelectric power plant in Africa and among the 20 largest in the world. First phase of filling the reservoir began in July 2020 and in August 2020 water level increased to 540 meters (40 meters higher than the bottom of the river which is at 500 meters above sea level). The second phase of filling was completed on 19 July 2021, with water levels increased to around 575 meters. The third filling was completed on 12 August 2022 to a level of 600 metres (2,000 ft). The fourth filling was completed on 10 September 2023 with water levels at around 625 metres (2,051 ft). On 20 February 2022, the dam produced electricity for the first time, delivering it to the grid at a rate of 375 MW. A second 375 MW turbine was commissioned in August 2022. (Full article...) The Wadi Kaam Dam is an embankment dam located on Wadi Kaam, 22 km (14 mi) west of Zliten in Misrata District, Libya. Completed in 1979, the primary purpose of the dam is water supply for irrigation. The dam was designed and built by Energoprojekt Hidroinženjering, a subsidiary of the Yugoslavian engineering company Energoprojekt, under the supervision of Chief Engineer Stojan J. Čanović. (Full article...) The Osborne Dam site on the Odzi River, Zimbabwe, was identified in the 1950s by the planning engineers of the Ministry of Water. Cored drilling investigations on the two possible alignments were completed in the 1960s. After the completion of Mazvikadei dam [1985–'88] with Italian financial aid, further funding became available for the project and when the 10 000 hectares of potential irrigable land was identified downstream the project was approved in 1989 by the multi-ministry irrigation committee of the Zimbabwe Government. (Full article...)

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The Aswan Dam, or more specifically since the 1980s, the Aswan High Dam, is one of the world's largest embankment dams, which was built across the Nile in Aswan, Egypt, between 1960 and 1970. When it was completed, it was the tallest earthen dam in the world, eclipsing the United States' Chatuge Dam. Its significance largely upstaged the previous Aswan Low Dam initially completed in 1902 downstream. Based on the success of the Low Dam, then at its maximum utilization, construction of the High Dam became a key objective of the new regime the Free Officers movement of 1952; with its ability to better control flooding, provide increased water storage for irrigation and generate hydroelectricity, the dam was seen as pivotal to Egypt's planned industrialization. Like the earlier implementation, the High Dam has had a significant effect on the economy and culture of Egypt. Before the High Dam was built, even with the old dam in place, the annual flooding of the Nile during late summer had continued to pass largely unimpeded down the valley from its East African drainage basin. These floods brought high water with natural nutrients and minerals that annually enriched the fertile soil along its floodplain and delta; this predictability had made the Nile valley ideal for farming since ancient times. However, this natural flooding varied, since high-water years could destroy the whole crop, while low-water years could create widespread drought and consequently famine. Both these events had continued to occur periodically. As Egypt's population grew and technology increased, both a desire and the ability developed to completely control the flooding, and thus both protect and support farmland and its economically important cotton crop. With the greatly increased reservoir storage provided by the High Aswan Dam, the floods could be controlled and the water could be stored for later release over multiple years. The Aswan Dam was designed by Nikolai Aleksandrovich Malyshev of the Moscow-based Hydroproject Institute. Designed for both irrigation and power generation, the dam incorporates a number of relatively new features, including a very deep grout curtain below its base. Although the reservoir will eventually silt in, even the most conservative estimates indicate the dam will give at least 200 years of service. (Full article...) Ruzizi III Hydroelectric Power Station is a proposed hydropower plant with planned capacity installation of 206 MW when completed. (Full article...) The Diama Dam, sometimes referred to as the Maka–Diama Dam (French: Barrage de Maka-Diama) is a gravity dam on the Senegal River, spanning the border of Senegal and Mauritania. It is located next to the town of Diama, Senegal and about 22 km (14 mi) north of Saint-Louis, Senegal. The purpose of the dam is to prevent saltwater intrusion upstream, supply water for the irrigation of about 45,000 ha (110,000 acres) of crops and create a road crossing for the road between St. Louis and Nouakchott in Mauritania. Additionally, a ship lock built within the dam provides for navigation upstream. Plans for the dam were first drawn in 1970 when the riparian states within the Senegal River Basin Development Authority agreed to develop the Senegal River. The Diama Dam was to be constructed in conjunction with the Manantali Dam which was to be located further upstream in Mali. Construction on the Diama Dam began on 15 September 1981 and was completed on 12 August 1986. The Manantali Dam was completed in 1988. The Diama project was funded by a US$149.5 million loan from the African Development Bank. The main section of the dam with ship lock and spillway is 170 m (560 ft) long while a 440 m (1,440 ft) long embankment dam section extends north to the edge of the river. A dike further extends the dam to the north. The dam is 18 m (59 ft) tall and its spillway has a maximum discharge of 6,500 m3/s (230,000 cu ft/s). The small town of Diama is known as a border crossing to and from Mauritania, as the dam is the only land bridge between the two countries. (Full article...) The Bujagali Power Station is a hydroelectric power station across the Victoria Nile that harnesses the energy of its namesake, the Bujagali Falls, in Uganda. Construction began in 2007 and concluded in 2012. It was officially inaugurated on 8 October 2012 by Ugandan President Yoweri Museveni and Aga Khan IV in the presence of African politicians and investors. The 250-megawatt power station was the largest hydroelectric energy source in Uganda when it was commissioned. However, the planned Karuma and Ayago power stations would be larger. The funding for the station was a source of some concern, as investors joined and departed from the project. As of July 2014, the plant was managed by Bujagali Energy Limited, which selected Italian contractor Salini Impregilo to develop the project. (Full article...) The Kompienga Dam is a large hydro-electric dam in Kompienga Province in southeastern Burkina Faso. Constructed between 1985 and 1988, it is the country's first hydro-electric dam and is responsible for much of Ouagadougou's electricity supply. Visitors can obtain a permit to visit the control room of the dam from the state electricity parastatal. (Full article...) The Inga Dams (French: Barrages d'Inga) are two hydroelectric dams connected to one of the largest waterfalls in the world, Inga Falls. They are located in the western Democratic Republic of the Congo and 140 miles southwest of Kinshasa. Inga Falls on the Congo River is a group of rapids (or cataracts) downstream of the Livingstone Falls and the Pool Malebo. The Congo falls ~96 metres (315 ft) within this set of cataracts. The mean annual flow rate of the Congo River at Inga Falls is ~42,000 cubic metres per second (1,500,000 cu ft/s). Given this flow rate and the 96-metre fall, the Inga Falls alone has a potential to generate ~39.6 gigawatts (53,100,000 hp) of mechanical energy and nearly as much electrical energy. Inga Falls is currently the site of two large hydro power plants and is being considered for a much larger hydro power generating station known as Grand Inga. The Grand Inga project, if completed, would be the largest hydro-electric power generating facility in the world. The current project scope calls for the use of a flow rate ~26,400 cubic metres per second at a net head of ~150 metres; this is equivalent to a generating capacity of ~38.9 GW. This hydro-electric generator would be more than double the current world record holder, which is the Three Gorges facility on the Yangtze River in China. Grand Inga is a "run-of-the-river" hydroelectric project in which only a relatively small reservoir would be created to back up the power of the river's flow. This would be so that the net head for the hydroelectric turbines could approach 150 metres. (Full article...) The Cambambe Hydroelectric Power Station is a hydroelectric power plant across the Kwanza River at the border between Cuanza Norte Province and Bengo Province in Angola. Following rehabilitation and expansion, the generation capacity of this installation is 960 megawatts (1,290,000 hp). (Full article...) Ayago Hydroelectric Power Station, also Ayago Power Station, is a planned 840 megawatt hydroelectric power project to be constructed in Uganda. If it is built, Ayago would be the largest power station in Uganda, based on generating capacity. (Full article...) Lamaum Dam is a privately owned hydroelectric dam located on the Catumbela River in the Benguela province of central Angola. Initially completed in 1965, the dam played a crucial role in supplying electricity to the towns of supplying electricity to the towns of Lobito, Benguela and Huambo., with an initial power output of 20 megawatts (27,000 hp). Destruction and Rehabilitation (1983–1987): In 1983, Lamaum Dam suffered severe damage when it was destroyed by UNITA(National Union for the Total Independence of Angola) after Angola gained independence. This destructive act led to widespread flooding, resulting in the tragic loss of ten lives. Recognizing the importance of this infrastructure, Portugal stepped in to provide credit for the rehabilitation of the dam in 1987. Rehabilitation and Expansion Plans (2008–2011): In 2008, plans were set in motion for the rehabilitation and enlargement of Lamaum Dam to increase its capacity to 60 megawatts (80,000 hp). The anticipated completion date was targeted for 2011. However, the actual progress and completion of the project may have been subject to various factors, including funding, technical challenges, and other logistical considerations. (Full article...) Maga Dam is a dam located south of Lake Chad in Cameroon, near the border with Chad. (Full article...) The Garafiri Dam is an embankment dam on the Konkouré River which forms the boundary between the Kindia and Mamou Regions of Guinea. The dam was constructed by Salini Impregilo between 1995 and 1999 for the purpose of hydroelectric power generation and water supply. The power station had a breakdown in 2002 but was repaired shortly afterwards. The power station has an installed capacity of 75 megawatts (101,000 hp). (Full article...) The Kapichira Power Station is a hydroelectric power plant at the Kapachira Falls on the Shire River in Malawi. It has an installed capacity of 128 megawatts (172,000 hp), enough to power over 86,000 homes, with four 32 megawatts (43,000 hp) generating sets. The power station was developed in stages, with the first phase involving the installation of the first two 32 megawatts-generating turbines. Phase I of the power station was officially opened in September 2000. In January 2014, in a ceremony attended by the president of Malawi at that time, Joyce Banda, the second phase of the Kapichira hydropower project was switched on, doubling the hitherto 64 megawatts to the maximum capacity of 128 megawatts. (Full article...) Ngondoma Dam is a dam on the Ngondoma River located 500 meters west of the Empress Mine Township in the Midlands Province of Zimbabwe. The dam is 67 kilometers northwest of the Kwekwe and 54 km southwest of Kadoma (by air). The Zhombe Communal Land lies to the east of the dam, and the Chief Chisina, Gokwe land is on its west. The dam belongs to the Zhombe East, Kwekwe District, and is one of the 1,620 dams in the Midlands. Dams in this province make up 17% of all dams in Zimbabwe and are managed by ZINWA (Zimbabwe National Water Authority). (Full article...) The Von Bach Dam (originally the Sartorius von Bach Dam) is a rock-fill embankment dam on the Swakop River near Okahandja in the Otjozondjupa Region of Namibia. Built in 1968 and commissioned in 1970, the dam provides Namibia's capital of Windhoek with much of the city's water. It also supplies Okahandja. The dam has a capacity of 48.56 million cubic metres (63,510,000 cu yd). Water from the reservoir is sent directly to a water treatment plant downstream. The treatment plant was completed in 1971 and upgraded in 1997. (Full article...)

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Kung-Fu Master, known as Spartan X in Japan, is a side-scrolling beat 'em up developed by Irem as an arcade video game in 1984, and distributed by Data East in North America. Designed by Takashi Nishiyama, the game was based on Hong Kong martial arts films. It is a loose adaptation of the Jackie Chan, Sammo Hung, and Yuen Biao film Wheels on Meals (1984), called Spartan X in Japan, with the protagonist Thomas named after Jackie Chan's character in the film. The game is also heavily inspired by the Bruce Lee film Game of Death (1972), which was the basis for the game's concept. Nishiyama, who had previously designed the side-scrolling shooter Moon Patrol (1982), combined fighting elements with a shoot 'em up gameplay rhythm. Irem and Data East exported the game to the West without the Spartan X license. The player controls Thomas, the titular Kung-Fu Master, as he fights his way through the five levels of the Devil's Temple to rescue his girlfriend Sylvia from the crime boss Mr. X. As he ascends the tower, he has to fight many enemies along the way and five end-of-level boss battles, a concept inspired by Game of Death. Thomas and each boss have a health meter, and the game temporarily becomes a one-on-one fighting game during boss battles. The game was a major commercial success, topping the Japanese arcade charts and becoming America's second highest-grossing arcade game of 1985, while receiving critical acclaim for its fast-paced, side-scrolling gameplay and detailed, colorful graphics. A port for the Nintendo Entertainment System (known as the Famicom in Japan) was developed by Nintendo under the direction of Shigeru Miyamoto, released as Spartan X in Japan and Kung-Fu in the West, selling 3.5 million copies worldwide. It was also one of the top five best-selling Commodore 64 games of 1986. It spawned the sequel Spartan X 2 (1991) and the spiritual successors Trojan (1986) and Vigilante (1988). (Full article...) The Los Angeles Times Syndicate launched The Legend of Bruce Lee comic strip, featuring fictional stories about the deceased actor and martial artist, in May 1982. The syndicate had originally approached veteran comic strip creators Milton Caniff and Noel Sickles about doing a Bruce Lee strip in 1978. The project never got off the ground, and five years later the syndicate tried again. Intended for "downscale, . . . very young audiences", The Legend of Bruce Lee was intended to "help boost newspaper circulation by attracting younger or less well-educated readers who don't normally read newspapers". It was written by Sharman DiVono (who herself had martial arts training), and illustrated by Fran Matera (with uncredited assists from Dick Kulpa). (Full article...) Lee Moon-shuen (Chinese: 李滿船; 4 February 1901 – 7 February 1965) known professionally as Lee Hoi-chuen, was a Chinese opera singer and film actor in Hong Kong. He was the father of Bruce Lee, the father-in-law of Linda Lee Cadwell, and the paternal grandfather of Brandon Lee and Shannon Lee. (Full article...) Warrior is an American martial arts crime drama television series that premiered on April 5, 2019, on Cinemax. It is based on an original concept and treatment by Bruce Lee, and is executive-produced by his daughter, Shannon Lee, and film director Justin Lin. Jonathan Tropper, known for the Cinemax original series Banshee, is the showrunner. In April 2019, Cinemax renewed the series for a second season which premiered on October 2, 2020. It was Cinemax's final series before ceasing production of original programming. In April 2021, the series was renewed for a third season, along with the announcement that the series would move to HBO Max, later rebranded to Max. The third season premiered on Max on June 29, 2023. In December 2023, the series was canceled after three seasons. (Full article...) Bruce Lee: A Warrior's Journey (Chinese: 李小龍：死亡遊戲之旅) is a 2000 documentary on the martial artist Bruce Lee and Jeet Kune Do. The documentary includes never-before-seen behind-the-scenes footage of Bruce Lee's life, as well as parts of the original footage of his incomplete film Game of Death, which had been left out of the film. (Full article...) The Bruce Lee Library is composed of books written by or about Bruce Lee (1940-1973), famous Hongkongese and American martial artist, philosopher, author, instructor of martial arts, actor, filmmaker and screenwriter. (Full article...) Nisei War Memorial, Lake View Cemetery Lake View Cemetery is a private cemetery located in Seattle, Washington, in the Capitol Hill neighborhood, just north of Volunteer Park. Known as "Seattle's Pioneer Cemetery," it is run by an independent, non-profit association. It was founded in 1872 as the Seattle Masonic Cemetery and later renamed for its view of Lake Washington to the east. (Full article...) Bruce Lee: The Man, The Myth (Chinese: 李小龍傳奇, also known as Bruce Lee: The True Story) is a 1976 Hong Kong semi-biographical martial arts film starring Ho Chung-tao (Bruce Li) and directed by Ng See-yuen. The film was released in Hong Kong on 28 October 1976. (Full article...) A statue of Bruce Lee was unveiled on 26 November 2005, in the city of Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina, by sculptor Ivan Fijolić. Located in Zrinjevac City Park, the life-sized statue stands 1.68 m (5 ft 6 in) tall, shorter than Bruce Lee's actual height of 1.72 m (5 ft 8 in), and was a symbol of solidarity in the ethnically-divided city until it was stolen in a heist on March 4, 2024, and was subsequently found albeit cut in pieces. (Full article...) Birth of the Dragon is a 2016 American martial arts action film directed by George Nolfi and written by Christopher Wilkinson and Stephen J. Rivele. The film stars Philip Wan-lung Ng, Xia Yu, Jin Xing, Qu Jingjing, Ron Yuan, and Billy Magnussen. Based on Michael Dorgan's article "Bruce Lee's Toughest Fight", the film is a fictional account on the supposedly true story revolving around Bruce Lee who, as a young martial artist, challenged kung fu master Wong Jack-man in 1965 in San Francisco. Principal photography began in Vancouver, Canada on November 17, 2015. Birth of the Dragon was selected to be screened in the Special Presentations section at the 2016 Toronto International Film Festival, and was released in select theaters on August 25, 2017, by OTL Releasing, BH Tilt and WWE Studios. The film received negative reviews from critics. (Full article...) The Jeet Kune Do Emblem The taijitu represents the concepts of yin and yang. The Chinese characters mean: "Using no way as way" and "Having no limitation as limitation". The arrows represent the endless interaction between yin and yang. Jeet Kune Do (Chinese: 截拳道; "way of the intercepting fist"; abbreviated JKD) is a hybrid martial art conceived and practiced by martial artist Bruce Lee. It was formed from Lee's experiences in unarmed fighting and self-defense—as well as eclectic, Zen Buddhist and Taoist philosophies—as a new school of martial arts thought. The core of Jeet Kune Do is the interception of the opponent, making corresponding responses or counterattacks that strike at incoming attacks. JKD also incorporates a set of principles to help practitioners make instant decisions and improve the physical and mental self, being intended to have practical applications in life without the traditional routines and metaphysics of conventional martial arts. As an eclectic martial art, it relies on a fighting style heavily influenced by Wing Chun, Tai Chi, taekwondo, boxing, fencing and jujutsu. Bruce Lee himself never formalized Jeet Kune Do before he died. This forced later JKD practitioners to rely upon their own interpretation of the philosophy created by Bruce Lee. (Full article...) Wong Shun-leung (Chinese: 黃淳樑; pinyin: Huang Chunliáng; Jyutping: Wong4 Seon4-loeng4; 8 May 1935 – 28 January 1997)[a] was a Hong Kong martial artist who studied Wing Chun kung fu under Yip Man (葉問) and was credited with training Bruce Lee. In interviews, Wong claimed to have won at least 60, and perhaps over 100, street fights against martial artists of various styles, though these numbers cannot be independently confirmed. Due to his reputation, his students and admirers referred to him as 'Gong Sau Wong' (講手王 or 'King of Talking Hands'). Wong recorded one instructional film entitled Wing Chun: The science of in-fighting. (Full article...) Bruce Lee Lives: The Fall of Hong Kong Palace is a video game published in 1989 by The Software Toolworks for MS-DOS. It included a book titled Dragon's Tale: The Story of Bruce Lee, written by Bruce Lee's wife Linda. (Full article...) China Warrior, known as The Kung Fu (THE 功夫) in Japan, is a beat 'em up video game created in 1987 by Hudson Soft for the PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16. The game received mixed reviews upon release, with praise for its large sprite graphics but criticism towards its gameplay. The game was ported to mobile phones and the Hudson Channel for the PS2 exclusively in Japan with redone graphics, audio, and gameplay. The PC Engine version was also released for the Wii's, Nintendo 3DS's, and Wii U's Virtual Console and on the Japanese PlayStation Store. (Full article...) The Legend of Bruce Lee (Chinese: 李小龍傳奇) is a 2008 Chinese biographical television series based on the life story of martial artist and actor Bruce Lee. The 50-episode series was produced and broadcast by CCTV and began airing on October 12, 2008. It was intended to promote Chinese culture alongside the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics. It stars Hong Kong actor Danny Chan as Bruce Lee and American actress Michelle Lang as Lee's wife, Linda Lee Cadwell. The production period spanned nine months, with filming taking place in China, Hong Kong, Macau, the United States, Italy, and Thailand, and with a budget of 50 million yuan (US$7.3 million). Lee's daughter, Shannon Lee, is credited as executive producer of the series. Other martial artists such as Mark Dacascos, Ray Park, Gary Daniels, Ernest Miller, and Michael Jai White are also featured in the series, playing the roles of martial artists prominent throughout Bruce Lee's life and career. (Full article...) Lee in 1998 Linda Emery Lee Cadwell (née Emery; born March 21, 1945) is a retired American teacher and writer, the widow of martial artist and actor Bruce Lee (1940–1973), and the mother of actor Brandon Lee (1965–1993) and actress Shannon Lee (born 1969). She is the author of the Bruce Lee biography Bruce Lee: The Man Only I Knew, upon which the film Dragon: The Bruce Lee Story (1993) is based, as well as the founder, a former trustee of, and an unpaid advisor of the Bruce Lee Foundation. (Full article...) I Am Bruce Lee is a 2012 documentary film directed by Pete McCormack. The film documents the life of Bruce Lee, the famous actor and martial artist, featuring interviews with his widow Linda Emery and daughter Shannon Lee. It won a Leo Award in 2012. (Full article...) The Legend of Bruce Lee (Chinese: 李小龍傳奇) is a 2008 Chinese biographical television series based on the life story of martial artist and actor Bruce Lee. The 50-episode series was produced and broadcast by CCTV and began airing on October 12, 2008. It was intended to promote Chinese culture alongside the 2008 Beijing Summer Olympics. It stars Hong Kong actor Danny Chan as Bruce Lee and American actress Michelle Lang as Lee's wife, Linda Lee Cadwell. The production period spanned nine months, with filming taking place in China, Hong Kong, Macau, the United States, Italy, and Thailand, and with a budget of 50 million yuan (US$7.3 million). Lee's daughter, Shannon Lee, is credited as executive producer of the series. Other martial artists such as Mark Dacascos, Ray Park, Gary Daniels, Ernest Miller, and Michael Jai White are also featured in the series, playing the roles of martial artists prominent throughout Bruce Lee's life and career. (Full article...) The Dragon Lives (Chinese: 詠春大兄; pinyin: Yǒng Chūn Dà Xiōng; Jyutping: wing6 cheun1 daai6 hing1), also known as He's a Legend, He's a Hero, is a 1976 Hong Kong martial arts film starring Bruce Li and directed by Wang Hsing-lei (credited as Singloy Wang). A fictional account of Bruce Lee's life, it is one of numerous films which exploited the popularity of Lee after his death, a practice called Bruceploitation. The film was released in the United States by Film Ventures International on 19 September 1978. The film has often been mistaken for Bruce Lee: The Man, The Myth, another 1976 film depicting Bruce Lee's life and starring Bruce Li. (Full article...) Chen Zhen (陳真; 陈真; Chén Zhēn; Can4 Zan1) is a fictional character created by Hong Kong writer Ni Kuang. First portrayed by Bruce Lee in the 1972 film Fist of Fury, the character has been the subject of numerous film and television series, including remakes and adaptations of Fist of Fury. Many notable actors, including Jet Li and Donnie Yen, have portrayed Chen Zhen on screen after Bruce Lee. Although Chen Zhen's story varies in the different remakes and adaptations, most have an ending similar to the original Fist of Fury. Chen Zhen is believed to be based on Liu Zhensheng (劉振聲), an apprentice of Huo Yuanjia, a martial artist who lived during the late Qing dynasty of China. (Full article...) Wong Jack-man (born 1941 – December 26, 2018) was a Chinese martial artist and teacher. He was best known for his controversial duel with Bruce Lee in 1964. (Full article...) Leung Siu-lung in 2007 Bruce Liang (28 April 1948) is a Hong Kong martial artist and actor who has appeared in many Hong Kong martial arts movies. He often appeared billed as "Bruce Leung", "Bruce Liang", "Bruce Leong", or "Bruce Leung Siu-lung", and is thus generally grouped among the Bruce Lee clones that sprang up after Lee's death in the subgenre known as Bruceploitation. (Full article...) Bruce Li (Chinese: 何宗道; pinyin: Hé Zōngdào; born Ho Chung-Tao; 5 June 1950) is a Taiwanese martial artist and actor who starred in martial arts films from the Bruceploitation movement. (Full article...) Bruce Lee: Return of the Legend is a 2003 action beat 'em up developed by Vicarious Visions for the Game Boy Advance. It was first published and released in Europe by Vivendi Universal Games on March 21, 2003, and was later published and released in North America on May 15, 2003. (Full article...)

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Ho circa 1940 Grace Ho (Chinese: 何愛瑜; 1907 – 24 June 1996) was the mother of Bruce Lee. She and her husband Lee Hoi-chuen were the parents of Bruce as well as Peter Lee, Robert Lee, Phoebe Lee, and Agnes Lee. (Full article...) Chinese Gung Fu: The Philosophical Art of Self-Defense is a book written by Bruce Lee expressing his martial arts philosophy and viewpoints. It describes his early style of gung fu which was based heavily on Wing Chun. This was before the development of his unique style of martial arts called Jeet Kune Do in the late 1960s. Chinese Gung Fu: The Philosophical Art of Self-Defense was published in early 1963 by Bruce Lee with the help of friend and fellow martial artist James Yimm Lee of Oakland, California. James had previously published books on the martial arts such as Modern Gung Fu, Karate: Iron, Poison Hand Training and Karate Oriental Self-Defense in 1957. In the book Remembering the Master: Bruce Lee, James Yimm Lee and the Creation of Jeet Kune Do by Sid Campbell and Greglon Yimm Lee (James Lee's son) it is stated the initial run was 1,500 copies. The book was sold through James Lee's company Oriental Book Sales at a price of $5. In addition to the book, a companion Chinese Gung Fu instruction chart was available for $1. Following Bruce Lee's death, his estate commissioned writer John Little to edit and publish some of Lee's writings. Little included the content of Chinese Gung Fu: The Philosophical Art of Self-Defense as well as additional 1964 writings by Bruce Lee in the book Bruce Lee, The Tao of Gung Fu: Commentaries on the Chinese Martial Arts. (Full article...) The Game of Death (Chinese: 死亡的遊戲) is an incomplete Hong Kong martial arts film, of which portions were filmed between September and October 1972, directed, written, produced by and starring Bruce Lee. The project was paused to film and produce Enter the Dragon. For The Game of Death, over 120 minutes of footage was shot, which was later misplaced in the Golden Harvest archives. The remaining footage has since been released with Lee's original Cantonese and English dialogue, with John Little dubbing Lee's Hai Tien character as part of the documentary titled Bruce Lee: A Warrior's Journey. Much of the footage that was shot is from what was to be the climax of the film. During filming, Lee received an offer to star in Enter the Dragon, the first kung fu film to be produced by a Hollywood studio (Warner Bros.), and with a budget unprecedented for the genre ($850,000). Lee died of cerebral edema before the film's release. At the time of his death, he had made plans to resume the filming of The Game of Death. After Lee's death, Enter the Dragon director Robert Clouse was enlisted to finish the film using two stand-ins; it was released in 1978 as Game of Death, five years after Lee's death, by Golden Harvest. The story of Lee's original 1972 film involves Lee's character, in order to save his younger sister and brother, joining a group of martial artists who are hired to retrieve a stolen Chinese national treasure from the top floor of a five-story pagoda in South Korea, with each floor guarded by martial artists who must be defeated while ascending the tower. The 1978 film's plot was altered to a revenge story, where the mafia attempts to kill Lee's character, who fakes his death and seeks vengeance against those who tried to kill him. The final part of the film uses some of Lee's original film footage, but with the pagoda setting changed to a restaurant building, where he fights martial artists hired by the mafia in an attempt to rescue his fiancée Ann Morris (played by Colleen Camp). This revised version received a mixed critical reception but was commercially successful, grossing an estimated US$50,000,000 (equivalent to $230,000,000 in 2023) worldwide. (Full article...) A statue of Bruce Lee was unveiled on 26 November 2005, in the city of Mostar, Bosnia and Herzegovina, by sculptor Ivan Fijolić. Located in Zrinjevac City Park, the life-sized statue stands 1.68 m (5 ft 6 in) tall, shorter than Bruce Lee's actual height of 1.72 m (5 ft 8 in), and was a symbol of solidarity in the ethnically-divided city until it was stolen in a heist on March 4, 2024, and was subsequently found albeit cut in pieces. (Full article...) Bruce Lee was a 1994 six-issue comic book miniseries published by Malibu Comics and written by Mike Baron and illustrated by Val Mayerik. It focused on a fictional Bruce Lee character striving his way through gangs and rival dojo owners, while building a movie career. Malibu included a Mortal Kombat short story in the first and fifth issues. Writer Mike Baron had previously written three issues of the Green Hornet comic published by NOW Comics, about Lee's Kato in the 1966 TV show. Val Mayerik had previously illustrated the second Kato limited series (also published by NOW). Baron states inspiration for the comic came from the 1970s Marvel Comics series Shang-Chi: Master of Kung Fu. Titan Books collected the miniseries into a trade paperback, simply titled Bruce Lee, in 1995. The publisher Edizioni Star Comics translated the series into Italian for its ongoing series Mortal Kombat & Bruce Lee, published in 1995–1996. (Full article...) Ip Man (born Ip Kai-man; 1 October 1893 – 2 December 1972), also known as Yip Man, was a Chinese martial artist. He became a teacher of the martial art of Wing Chun when he was 20. He had several students who later became martial arts masters in their own right, the most famous among them being Bruce Lee. (Full article...) Bruce Lee Lives: The Fall of Hong Kong Palace is a video game published in 1989 by The Software Toolworks for MS-DOS. It included a book titled Dragon's Tale: The Story of Bruce Lee, written by Bruce Lee's wife Linda. (Full article...) Robert Lee Jun-fai (born 16 December 1948) is a Hong Kong musician. He is the younger brother of the late martial artist Bruce Lee. (Full article...) 41 Cumberland Road in 2008, operating at that time as a love hotel. 41 Cumberland Road is the address of Bruce Lee's former home in Kowloon Tong, Kowloon, Hong Kong, where he spent his last year with his family. The place was affectionately known as "the Crane's Nest". It is located in Kowloon City District. (Full article...) Bruce Lee: Quest of the Dragon is a beat 'em up video game featuring martial artist Bruce Lee. It was developed by Ronin Entertainment and published by Universal Interactive, and was released in Europe and the United States for the Xbox in 2002 to a negative critical reception. (Full article...) Spirit of the Dragon (龍在江湖 李小龍傳奇) is a Hong Kong TV series based on famous martial artist Bruce Lee. The 30 episode series was released on ATV in 1992. (Full article...) Bruce Lee: A Warrior's Journey (Chinese: 李小龍：死亡遊戲之旅) is a 2000 documentary on the martial artist Bruce Lee and Jeet Kune Do. The documentary includes never-before-seen behind-the-scenes footage of Bruce Lee's life, as well as parts of the original footage of his incomplete film Game of Death, which had been left out of the film. (Full article...) Bruceploitation (a portmanteau of "Bruce Lee" and "exploitation") is an exploitation film subgenre that emerged after the death of martial arts film star Bruce Lee in 1973, during which time filmmakers from Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea cast Bruce Lee look-alike actors ("Lee-alikes") to star in imitation martial arts films, in order to exploit Lee's sudden international popularity. Bruce Lee look-alike characters also commonly appear in other media, including anime, comic books, manga, and video games. (Full article...) Dragon Lee (born 1958) is an actor and practitioner of taekwondo and hapkido. He made a name for himself as a martial arts film star in the 1970s and 80s. His birth name is Moon Kyung-seok, but he is also called Keo Ryong (literally "giant dragon") in South Korea. Lee studied taekwondo with friend and actor Kim Tai-chung, who served as Bruce Lee's double in the final scenes of "Game of Death." It was at this stage of his life that Lee began studying also the Korean martial art of hapkido under Hwang In-shik, who appeared with Bruce Lee in Way of the Dragon. When Dragon Lee was at a theater, a man told him that he resembled Bruce Lee, a big compliment because Bruce Lee was popular at the time. The man knew film directors in Hong Kong and helped Dragon Lee advance his career. (Full article...) Be Water is a documentary film that premiered at the 2020 Sundance Film Festival and is directed by Bao Nguyen. It is about Bruce Lee, a famous martial artist. It uses significant amounts of archival footage, and focuses on Lee's two years in Hong Kong spent filming four feature films. Reviewers think it is a compelling film. It is part of ESPN's 30 for 30 documentary series and the film tackles racism in America. In a GQ interview, Nguyen talks about how this film represents protest and fits the zeitgeist, with many more Asian-American films being released as contemporaries. As of February 19, 2021, it is on Netflix. It won the Gold List Award in 2021. (Full article...) The one-inch punch is a punching exercise from Chinese martial arts performed at a range of 0–15 cm (0–6 in). The one-inch punch was popularized by actor and martial artist Bruce Lee. It is purported to improve punching power and technique. (Full article...) Bruce Lee is a platform game written by Ron J. Fortier for Atari 8-bit computers and published in 1984 by Datasoft. The graphics are by Kelly Day and music by John A. Fitzpatrick. The player takes the role of Bruce Lee, while a second player controls either Yamo or alternates with player one for control of Bruce Lee. Commodore 64 and Apple II versions were released the same year. The game was converted to the ZX Spectrum and Amstrad CPC and published by U.S. Gold. It was the first U.S. Gold release featuring a famous individual. An MSX version was published in 1985 by Comptiq. (Full article...) The Long Beach International Karate Championships is an International karate and martial arts tournament in Long Beach, California that was first held in August 1964 by Kenpo Grandmaster Ed Parker. The tournament ran competition til 1999 under IKKA organization/Parker family. Many great tournament fighters earned their stripes at this tournament, including Chuck Norris, Andy Ah Po, Tony Martinez Sr., Mike Stone, Joe Lewis, Jim Kelly, Benny "The Jet" Urquidez, Billy Blanks, Jerry Piddington, and "Superfoot" Bill Wallace. The Long Beach Internationals is also where Bruce Lee was first introduced to the martial arts community in August 1964, with Lee making another appearance in 1967. (Full article...) Wong Shun-leung (Chinese: 黃淳樑; pinyin: Huang Chunliáng; Jyutping: Wong4 Seon4-loeng4; 8 May 1935 – 28 January 1997)[a] was a Hong Kong martial artist who studied Wing Chun kung fu under Yip Man (葉問) and was credited with training Bruce Lee. In interviews, Wong claimed to have won at least 60, and perhaps over 100, street fights against martial artists of various styles, though these numbers cannot be independently confirmed. Due to his reputation, his students and admirers referred to him as 'Gong Sau Wong' (講手王 or 'King of Talking Hands'). Wong recorded one instructional film entitled Wing Chun: The science of in-fighting. (Full article...) I Am Bruce Lee is a 2012 documentary film directed by Pete McCormack. The film documents the life of Bruce Lee, the famous actor and martial artist, featuring interviews with his widow Linda Emery and daughter Shannon Lee. It won a Leo Award in 2012. (Full article...) Brandon Bruce Lee (February 1, 1965 – March 31, 1993) was an American actor and martial artist. Establishing himself as a rising action star in the early 1990s, he landed his breakthrough role as Eric Draven in the supernatural superhero film The Crow (1994). However, Lee's career and life were cut short by his accidental death during the film's production. Lee was the son of martial artist and film star Bruce Lee, who died when Brandon was eight years old. Lee, who followed in his father's footsteps, trained in martial arts, including Jeet Kun Do, Wing Chun, Eskrima, Silat, and Muay Thai, and studied acting at Emerson College and the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute. He started his career with leading roles in the Hong Kong action film Legacy of Rage (1986), for which he was nominated for a Hong Kong Film Award for Best New Performer, and the straight-to-video Laser Mission (1989), which was a financial success on home video. Lee also appeared in two spin-offs of the 1970s series Kung Fu, the television film Kung Fu: The Movie (1986) and the pilot Kung Fu: The Next Generation (1987). In 1988, Lee played an antagonist in "What's In a Name", an episode of the American television series Ohara, starring Pat Morita. Transitioning to Hollywood productions, Lee first starred in the Warner Bros buddy cop film Showdown in Little Tokyo (1991), co-starring Dolph Lundgren. While it did not do well with audiences and critics upon its release, it later became a cult film. This was followed by a leading role in Rapid Fire (1992), produced by 20th Century Fox. Lee, alongside Jeff Imada, is also credited for the fight choreography, which contained elements of Jeet Kune Do. Though the film was not well-received, critics praised Lee's onscreen presence. (Full article...) The Dragon Lives (Chinese: 詠春大兄; pinyin: Yǒng Chūn Dà Xiōng; Jyutping: wing6 cheun1 daai6 hing1), also known as He's a Legend, He's a Hero, is a 1976 Hong Kong martial arts film starring Bruce Li and directed by Wang Hsing-lei (credited as Singloy Wang). A fictional account of Bruce Lee's life, it is one of numerous films which exploited the popularity of Lee after his death, a practice called Bruceploitation. The film was released in the United States by Film Ventures International on 19 September 1978. The film has often been mistaken for Bruce Lee: The Man, The Myth, another 1976 film depicting Bruce Lee's life and starring Bruce Li. (Full article...) Leung Siu-lung in 2007 Bruce Liang (28 April 1948) is a Hong Kong martial artist and actor who has appeared in many Hong Kong martial arts movies. He often appeared billed as "Bruce Leung", "Bruce Liang", "Bruce Leong", or "Bruce Leung Siu-lung", and is thus generally grouped among the Bruce Lee clones that sprang up after Lee's death in the subgenre known as Bruceploitation. (Full article...) China Warrior, known as The Kung Fu (THE 功夫) in Japan, is a beat 'em up video game created in 1987 by Hudson Soft for the PC Engine/TurboGrafx-16. The game received mixed reviews upon release, with praise for its large sprite graphics but criticism towards its gameplay. The game was ported to mobile phones and the Hudson Channel for the PS2 exclusively in Japan with redone graphics, audio, and gameplay. The PC Engine version was also released for the Wii's, Nintendo 3DS's, and Wii U's Virtual Console and on the Japanese PlayStation Store. (Full article...)

Outline of underwater diving § Modes of underwater diving

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A freediver on the ocean floor Freediving, free-diving, free diving, breath-hold diving, or skin diving, is a mode of underwater diving that relies on breath-holding until resurfacing rather than the use of breathing apparatus such as scuba gear. Besides the limits of breath-hold, immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure also have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in freediving. Examples of freediving activities are traditional fishing techniques, competitive and non-competitive freediving, competitive and non-competitive spearfishing and freediving photography, synchronised swimming, underwater football, underwater rugby, underwater hockey, underwater target shooting and snorkeling. There are also a range of "competitive apnea" disciplines; in which competitors attempt to attain great depths, times, or distances on a single breath. Historically, the term free diving was also used to refer to scuba diving, due to the freedom of movement compared with surface supplied diving. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...) Surface-supplied divers riding a stage to the underwater workplace Underwater diving, as a human activity, is the practice of descending below the water's surface to interact with the environment. It is also often referred to as diving, an ambiguous term with several possible meanings, depending on context. Immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in ambient pressure diving. Humans are not physiologically and anatomically well-adapted to the environmental conditions of diving, and various equipment has been developed to extend the depth and duration of human dives, and allow different types of work to be done. In ambient pressure diving, the diver is directly exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water. The ambient pressure diver may dive on breath-hold (freediving) or use breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface-supplied diving, and the saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) after long-duration deep dives. Atmospheric diving suits (ADS) may be used to isolate the diver from high ambient pressure. Crewed submersibles can extend depth range to full ocean depth, and remotely controlled or robotic machines can reduce risk to humans. The environment exposes the diver to a wide range of hazards, and though the risks are largely controlled by appropriate diving skills, training, types of equipment and breathing gases used depending on the mode, depth and purpose of diving, it remains a relatively dangerous activity. Professional diving is usually regulated by occupational health and safety legislation, while recreational diving may be entirely unregulated. Diving activities are restricted to maximum depths of about 40 metres (130 ft) for recreational scuba diving, 530 metres (1,740 ft) for commercial saturation diving, and 610 metres (2,000 ft) wearing atmospheric suits. Diving is also restricted to conditions which are not excessively hazardous, though the level of risk acceptable can vary, and fatal incidents may occur. Recreational diving (sometimes called sport diving or subaquatics) is a popular leisure activity. Technical diving is a form of recreational diving under more challenging conditions. Professional diving (commercial diving, diving for research purposes, or for financial gain) involves working underwater. Public safety diving is the underwater work done by law enforcement, fire rescue, and underwater search and recovery dive teams. Military diving includes combat diving, clearance diving and ships husbandry. Deep sea diving is underwater diving, usually with surface-supplied equipment, and often refers to the use of standard diving dress with the traditional copper helmet. Hard hat diving is any form of diving with a helmet, including the standard copper helmet, and other forms of free-flow and lightweight demand helmets. The history of breath-hold diving goes back at least to classical times, and there is evidence of prehistoric hunting and gathering of seafoods that may have involved underwater swimming. Technical advances allowing the provision of breathing gas to a diver underwater at ambient pressure are recent, and self-contained breathing systems developed at an accelerated rate following the Second World War. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...) Atmospheric diving suit An atmospheric diving suit (ADS) is a small one-person articulated submersible which resembles a suit of armour, with elaborate pressure joints to allow articulation while maintaining an internal pressure of one atmosphere. An ADS can enable diving at depths of up to 2,300 feet (700 m) for many hours by eliminating the majority of significant physiological dangers associated with deep diving. The occupant of an ADS does not need to decompress, and there is no need for special breathing gas mixtures, so there is little danger of decompression sickness or nitrogen narcosis when the ADS is functioning properly. An ADS can permit less skilled swimmers to complete deep dives, albeit at the expense of dexterity. Atmospheric diving suits in current use include the Newtsuit, Exosuit, Hardsuit and the WASP, all of which are self-contained hard suits that incorporate propulsion units. The Hardsuit is constructed from cast aluminum (forged aluminum in a version constructed for the US Navy for submarine rescue); the upper hull is made from cast aluminum, while the bottom dome is machined aluminum. The WASP is of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) body tube construction. (Full article...) Recreational scuba diver Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving whereby divers use breathing equipment that is completely independent of a surface breathing gas supply, and therefore has a limited but variable endurance. The name scuba is an anacronym for "Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus" and was coined by Christian J. Lambertsen in a patent submitted in 1952. Scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, affording them greater independence and movement than surface-supplied divers, and more time underwater than free divers. Although the use of compressed air is common, a gas blend with a higher oxygen content, known as enriched air or nitrox, has become popular due to the reduced nitrogen intake during long or repetitive dives. Also, breathing gas diluted with helium may be used to reduce the effects of nitrogen narcosis during deeper dives. Open-circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver at ambient pressure through a diving regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open-circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open-circuit for the same metabolic gas consumption; they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open-circuit scuba, which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference. Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment when this is practicable. Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers. A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, but external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a sled pulled from the surface. Other equipment needed for scuba diving includes a mask to improve underwater vision, exposure protection by means of a diving suit, ballast weights to overcome excess buoyancy, equipment to control buoyancy, and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive, which may include a snorkel when swimming on the surface, a cutting tool to manage entanglement, lights, a dive computer to monitor decompression status, and signalling devices. Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by diving instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications. These include standard operating procedures for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment, and emergency procedures for self-help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, but a higher level of fitness may be appropriate for some applications. (Full article...) Saturation diver working on the USS Monitor wreck at 70 m (230 ft) depth. Saturation diving is diving for periods long enough to bring all tissues into equilibrium with the partial pressures of the inert components of the breathing gas used. It is a diving mode that reduces the number of decompressions divers working at great depths must undergo by only decompressing divers once at the end of the diving operation, which may last days to weeks, having them remain under pressure for the whole period. A diver breathing pressurized gas accumulates dissolved inert gas used in the breathing mixture to dilute the oxygen to a non-toxic level in the tissues, which can cause decompression sickness ("the bends") if permitted to come out of solution within the body tissues; hence, returning to the surface safely requires lengthy decompression so that the inert gases can be eliminated via the lungs. Once the dissolved gases in a diver's tissues reach the saturation point, however, decompression time does not increase with further exposure, as no more inert gas is accumulated. Saturation diving takes advantage of this by having divers remain in that saturated state. When not in the water, the divers live in a sealed environment which maintains their pressurised state; this can be an ambient pressure underwater habitat or a saturation system at the surface, with transfer to and from the pressurised living quarters to the equivalent depth underwater via a closed, pressurised diving bell. This may be maintained for up to several weeks, and divers are decompressed to surface pressure only once, at the end of their tour of duty. By limiting the number of decompressions in this way, and using a conservative decompression schedule the risk of decompression sickness is significantly reduced, and the total time spent decompressing is minimised. Saturation divers typically breathe a helium–oxygen mixture to prevent nitrogen narcosis, and limit work of breathing, but at shallow depths saturation diving has been done on nitrox mixtures. Most of the physiological and medical aspects of diving to the same depths are much the same in saturation and bell-bounce ambient pressure diving, or are less of a problem, but there are medical and psychological effects of living under saturation for extended periods. Saturation diving is a specialized form of diving; of the 3,300 commercial divers employed in the United States in 2015, 336 were saturation divers. Special training and certification is required, as the activity is inherently hazardous, and a set of standard operating procedures, emergency procedures, and a range of specialised equipment is used to control the risk, that require consistently correct performance by all the members of an extended diving team. The combination of relatively large skilled personnel requirements, complex engineering, and bulky, heavy equipment required to support a saturation diving project make it an expensive diving mode, but it allows direct human intervention at places that would not otherwise be practical, and where it is applied, it is generally more economically viable than other options, if such exist. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...) 2nd Reconnaissance Battalion combat diver training with the Dräger LAR V rebreather Rebreather diving is underwater diving using diving rebreathers, a class of underwater breathing apparatus which recirculate the breathing gas exhaled by the diver after replacing the oxygen used and removing the carbon dioxide metabolic product. Rebreather diving is practiced by recreational, military and scientific divers in applications where it has advantages over open circuit scuba, and surface supply of breathing gas is impracticable. The main advantages of rebreather diving are extended gas endurance, low noise levels, and lack of bubbles. Rebreathers are generally used for scuba applications, but are also occasionally used for bailout systems for surface-supplied diving. Gas reclaim systems used for deep heliox diving use similar technology to rebreathers, as do saturation diving life-support systems, but in these applications the gas recycling equipment is not carried by the diver. Atmospheric diving suits also carry rebreather technology to recycle breathing gas as part of the life-support system, but this article covers the procedures of ambient pressure diving using rebreathers carried by the diver. Rebreathers are generally more complex to use than open circuit scuba, and have more potential points of failure, so acceptably safe use requires a greater level of skill, attention and situational awareness, which is usually derived from understanding the systems, diligent maintenance and overlearning the practical skills of operation and fault recovery. Fault tolerant design can make a rebreather less likely to fail in a way that immediately endangers the user, and reduces the task loading on the diver which in turn may lower the risk of operator error. (Full article...) Surface-supplied divers riding a stage to the underwater workplace Underwater diving, as a human activity, is the practice of descending below the water's surface to interact with the environment. It is also often referred to as diving, an ambiguous term with several possible meanings, depending on context. Immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in ambient pressure diving. Humans are not physiologically and anatomically well-adapted to the environmental conditions of diving, and various equipment has been developed to extend the depth and duration of human dives, and allow different types of work to be done. In ambient pressure diving, the diver is directly exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water. The ambient pressure diver may dive on breath-hold (freediving) or use breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface-supplied diving, and the saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) after long-duration deep dives. Atmospheric diving suits (ADS) may be used to isolate the diver from high ambient pressure. Crewed submersibles can extend depth range to full ocean depth, and remotely controlled or robotic machines can reduce risk to humans. The environment exposes the diver to a wide range of hazards, and though the risks are largely controlled by appropriate diving skills, training, types of equipment and breathing gases used depending on the mode, depth and purpose of diving, it remains a relatively dangerous activity. Professional diving is usually regulated by occupational health and safety legislation, while recreational diving may be entirely unregulated. Diving activities are restricted to maximum depths of about 40 metres (130 ft) for recreational scuba diving, 530 metres (1,740 ft) for commercial saturation diving, and 610 metres (2,000 ft) wearing atmospheric suits. Diving is also restricted to conditions which are not excessively hazardous, though the level of risk acceptable can vary, and fatal incidents may occur. Recreational diving (sometimes called sport diving or subaquatics) is a popular leisure activity. Technical diving is a form of recreational diving under more challenging conditions. Professional diving (commercial diving, diving for research purposes, or for financial gain) involves working underwater. Public safety diving is the underwater work done by law enforcement, fire rescue, and underwater search and recovery dive teams. Military diving includes combat diving, clearance diving and ships husbandry. Deep sea diving is underwater diving, usually with surface-supplied equipment, and often refers to the use of standard diving dress with the traditional copper helmet. Hard hat diving is any form of diving with a helmet, including the standard copper helmet, and other forms of free-flow and lightweight demand helmets. The history of breath-hold diving goes back at least to classical times, and there is evidence of prehistoric hunting and gathering of seafoods that may have involved underwater swimming. Technical advances allowing the provision of breathing gas to a diver underwater at ambient pressure are recent, and self-contained breathing systems developed at an accelerated rate following the Second World War. (Full article...) Recreational scuba diver Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving whereby divers use breathing equipment that is completely independent of a surface breathing gas supply, and therefore has a limited but variable endurance. The name scuba is an anacronym for "Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus" and was coined by Christian J. Lambertsen in a patent submitted in 1952. Scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, affording them greater independence and movement than surface-supplied divers, and more time underwater than free divers. Although the use of compressed air is common, a gas blend with a higher oxygen content, known as enriched air or nitrox, has become popular due to the reduced nitrogen intake during long or repetitive dives. Also, breathing gas diluted with helium may be used to reduce the effects of nitrogen narcosis during deeper dives. Open-circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver at ambient pressure through a diving regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open-circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open-circuit for the same metabolic gas consumption; they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open-circuit scuba, which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference. Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment when this is practicable. Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers. A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, but external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a sled pulled from the surface. Other equipment needed for scuba diving includes a mask to improve underwater vision, exposure protection by means of a diving suit, ballast weights to overcome excess buoyancy, equipment to control buoyancy, and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive, which may include a snorkel when swimming on the surface, a cutting tool to manage entanglement, lights, a dive computer to monitor decompression status, and signalling devices. Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by diving instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications. These include standard operating procedures for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment, and emergency procedures for self-help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, but a higher level of fitness may be appropriate for some applications. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)

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Saturation diver working on the USS Monitor wreck at 70 m (230 ft) depth. Saturation diving is diving for periods long enough to bring all tissues into equilibrium with the partial pressures of the inert components of the breathing gas used. It is a diving mode that reduces the number of decompressions divers working at great depths must undergo by only decompressing divers once at the end of the diving operation, which may last days to weeks, having them remain under pressure for the whole period. A diver breathing pressurized gas accumulates dissolved inert gas used in the breathing mixture to dilute the oxygen to a non-toxic level in the tissues, which can cause decompression sickness ("the bends") if permitted to come out of solution within the body tissues; hence, returning to the surface safely requires lengthy decompression so that the inert gases can be eliminated via the lungs. Once the dissolved gases in a diver's tissues reach the saturation point, however, decompression time does not increase with further exposure, as no more inert gas is accumulated. Saturation diving takes advantage of this by having divers remain in that saturated state. When not in the water, the divers live in a sealed environment which maintains their pressurised state; this can be an ambient pressure underwater habitat or a saturation system at the surface, with transfer to and from the pressurised living quarters to the equivalent depth underwater via a closed, pressurised diving bell. This may be maintained for up to several weeks, and divers are decompressed to surface pressure only once, at the end of their tour of duty. By limiting the number of decompressions in this way, and using a conservative decompression schedule the risk of decompression sickness is significantly reduced, and the total time spent decompressing is minimised. Saturation divers typically breathe a helium–oxygen mixture to prevent nitrogen narcosis, and limit work of breathing, but at shallow depths saturation diving has been done on nitrox mixtures. Most of the physiological and medical aspects of diving to the same depths are much the same in saturation and bell-bounce ambient pressure diving, or are less of a problem, but there are medical and psychological effects of living under saturation for extended periods. Saturation diving is a specialized form of diving; of the 3,300 commercial divers employed in the United States in 2015, 336 were saturation divers. Special training and certification is required, as the activity is inherently hazardous, and a set of standard operating procedures, emergency procedures, and a range of specialised equipment is used to control the risk, that require consistently correct performance by all the members of an extended diving team. The combination of relatively large skilled personnel requirements, complex engineering, and bulky, heavy equipment required to support a saturation diving project make it an expensive diving mode, but it allows direct human intervention at places that would not otherwise be practical, and where it is applied, it is generally more economically viable than other options, if such exist. (Full article...) Recreational scuba diver Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving whereby divers use breathing equipment that is completely independent of a surface breathing gas supply, and therefore has a limited but variable endurance. The name scuba is an anacronym for "Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus" and was coined by Christian J. Lambertsen in a patent submitted in 1952. Scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, affording them greater independence and movement than surface-supplied divers, and more time underwater than free divers. Although the use of compressed air is common, a gas blend with a higher oxygen content, known as enriched air or nitrox, has become popular due to the reduced nitrogen intake during long or repetitive dives. Also, breathing gas diluted with helium may be used to reduce the effects of nitrogen narcosis during deeper dives. Open-circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver at ambient pressure through a diving regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open-circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open-circuit for the same metabolic gas consumption; they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open-circuit scuba, which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference. Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment when this is practicable. Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers. A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, but external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a sled pulled from the surface. Other equipment needed for scuba diving includes a mask to improve underwater vision, exposure protection by means of a diving suit, ballast weights to overcome excess buoyancy, equipment to control buoyancy, and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive, which may include a snorkel when swimming on the surface, a cutting tool to manage entanglement, lights, a dive computer to monitor decompression status, and signalling devices. Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by diving instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications. These include standard operating procedures for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment, and emergency procedures for self-help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, but a higher level of fitness may be appropriate for some applications. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...) Surface-supplied divers riding a stage to the underwater workplace Underwater diving, as a human activity, is the practice of descending below the water's surface to interact with the environment. It is also often referred to as diving, an ambiguous term with several possible meanings, depending on context. Immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in ambient pressure diving. Humans are not physiologically and anatomically well-adapted to the environmental conditions of diving, and various equipment has been developed to extend the depth and duration of human dives, and allow different types of work to be done. In ambient pressure diving, the diver is directly exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water. The ambient pressure diver may dive on breath-hold (freediving) or use breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface-supplied diving, and the saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) after long-duration deep dives. Atmospheric diving suits (ADS) may be used to isolate the diver from high ambient pressure. Crewed submersibles can extend depth range to full ocean depth, and remotely controlled or robotic machines can reduce risk to humans. The environment exposes the diver to a wide range of hazards, and though the risks are largely controlled by appropriate diving skills, training, types of equipment and breathing gases used depending on the mode, depth and purpose of diving, it remains a relatively dangerous activity. Professional diving is usually regulated by occupational health and safety legislation, while recreational diving may be entirely unregulated. Diving activities are restricted to maximum depths of about 40 metres (130 ft) for recreational scuba diving, 530 metres (1,740 ft) for commercial saturation diving, and 610 metres (2,000 ft) wearing atmospheric suits. Diving is also restricted to conditions which are not excessively hazardous, though the level of risk acceptable can vary, and fatal incidents may occur. Recreational diving (sometimes called sport diving or subaquatics) is a popular leisure activity. Technical diving is a form of recreational diving under more challenging conditions. Professional diving (commercial diving, diving for research purposes, or for financial gain) involves working underwater. Public safety diving is the underwater work done by law enforcement, fire rescue, and underwater search and recovery dive teams. Military diving includes combat diving, clearance diving and ships husbandry. Deep sea diving is underwater diving, usually with surface-supplied equipment, and often refers to the use of standard diving dress with the traditional copper helmet. Hard hat diving is any form of diving with a helmet, including the standard copper helmet, and other forms of free-flow and lightweight demand helmets. The history of breath-hold diving goes back at least to classical times, and there is evidence of prehistoric hunting and gathering of seafoods that may have involved underwater swimming. Technical advances allowing the provision of breathing gas to a diver underwater at ambient pressure are recent, and self-contained breathing systems developed at an accelerated rate following the Second World War. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...) Recreational scuba diver Scuba diving is a mode of underwater diving whereby divers use breathing equipment that is completely independent of a surface breathing gas supply, and therefore has a limited but variable endurance. The name scuba is an anacronym for "Self-Contained Underwater Breathing Apparatus" and was coined by Christian J. Lambertsen in a patent submitted in 1952. Scuba divers carry their own source of breathing gas, usually compressed air, affording them greater independence and movement than surface-supplied divers, and more time underwater than free divers. Although the use of compressed air is common, a gas blend with a higher oxygen content, known as enriched air or nitrox, has become popular due to the reduced nitrogen intake during long or repetitive dives. Also, breathing gas diluted with helium may be used to reduce the effects of nitrogen narcosis during deeper dives. Open-circuit scuba systems discharge the breathing gas into the environment as it is exhaled, and consist of one or more diving cylinders containing breathing gas at high pressure which is supplied to the diver at ambient pressure through a diving regulator. They may include additional cylinders for range extension, decompression gas or emergency breathing gas. Closed-circuit or semi-closed circuit rebreather scuba systems allow recycling of exhaled gases. The volume of gas used is reduced compared to that of open-circuit, so a smaller cylinder or cylinders may be used for an equivalent dive duration. Rebreathers extend the time spent underwater compared to open-circuit for the same metabolic gas consumption; they produce fewer bubbles and less noise than open-circuit scuba, which makes them attractive to covert military divers to avoid detection, scientific divers to avoid disturbing marine animals, and media divers to avoid bubble interference. Scuba diving may be done recreationally or professionally in a number of applications, including scientific, military and public safety roles, but most commercial diving uses surface-supplied diving equipment when this is practicable. Scuba divers engaged in armed forces covert operations may be referred to as frogmen, combat divers or attack swimmers. A scuba diver primarily moves underwater by using fins attached to the feet, but external propulsion can be provided by a diver propulsion vehicle, or a sled pulled from the surface. Other equipment needed for scuba diving includes a mask to improve underwater vision, exposure protection by means of a diving suit, ballast weights to overcome excess buoyancy, equipment to control buoyancy, and equipment related to the specific circumstances and purpose of the dive, which may include a snorkel when swimming on the surface, a cutting tool to manage entanglement, lights, a dive computer to monitor decompression status, and signalling devices. Scuba divers are trained in the procedures and skills appropriate to their level of certification by diving instructors affiliated to the diver certification organisations which issue these certifications. These include standard operating procedures for using the equipment and dealing with the general hazards of the underwater environment, and emergency procedures for self-help and assistance of a similarly equipped diver experiencing problems. A minimum level of fitness and health is required by most training organisations, but a higher level of fitness may be appropriate for some applications. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...) Surface-supplied divers riding a stage to the underwater workplace Underwater diving, as a human activity, is the practice of descending below the water's surface to interact with the environment. It is also often referred to as diving, an ambiguous term with several possible meanings, depending on context. Immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in ambient pressure diving. Humans are not physiologically and anatomically well-adapted to the environmental conditions of diving, and various equipment has been developed to extend the depth and duration of human dives, and allow different types of work to be done. In ambient pressure diving, the diver is directly exposed to the pressure of the surrounding water. The ambient pressure diver may dive on breath-hold (freediving) or use breathing apparatus for scuba diving or surface-supplied diving, and the saturation diving technique reduces the risk of decompression sickness (DCS) after long-duration deep dives. Atmospheric diving suits (ADS) may be used to isolate the diver from high ambient pressure. Crewed submersibles can extend depth range to full ocean depth, and remotely controlled or robotic machines can reduce risk to humans. The environment exposes the diver to a wide range of hazards, and though the risks are largely controlled by appropriate diving skills, training, types of equipment and breathing gases used depending on the mode, depth and purpose of diving, it remains a relatively dangerous activity. Professional diving is usually regulated by occupational health and safety legislation, while recreational diving may be entirely unregulated. Diving activities are restricted to maximum depths of about 40 metres (130 ft) for recreational scuba diving, 530 metres (1,740 ft) for commercial saturation diving, and 610 metres (2,000 ft) wearing atmospheric suits. Diving is also restricted to conditions which are not excessively hazardous, though the level of risk acceptable can vary, and fatal incidents may occur. Recreational diving (sometimes called sport diving or subaquatics) is a popular leisure activity. Technical diving is a form of recreational diving under more challenging conditions. Professional diving (commercial diving, diving for research purposes, or for financial gain) involves working underwater. Public safety diving is the underwater work done by law enforcement, fire rescue, and underwater search and recovery dive teams. Military diving includes combat diving, clearance diving and ships husbandry. Deep sea diving is underwater diving, usually with surface-supplied equipment, and often refers to the use of standard diving dress with the traditional copper helmet. Hard hat diving is any form of diving with a helmet, including the standard copper helmet, and other forms of free-flow and lightweight demand helmets. The history of breath-hold diving goes back at least to classical times, and there is evidence of prehistoric hunting and gathering of seafoods that may have involved underwater swimming. Technical advances allowing the provision of breathing gas to a diver underwater at ambient pressure are recent, and self-contained breathing systems developed at an accelerated rate following the Second World War. (Full article...) A freediver on the ocean floor Freediving, free-diving, free diving, breath-hold diving, or skin diving, is a mode of underwater diving that relies on breath-holding until resurfacing rather than the use of breathing apparatus such as scuba gear. Besides the limits of breath-hold, immersion in water and exposure to high ambient pressure also have physiological effects that limit the depths and duration possible in freediving. Examples of freediving activities are traditional fishing techniques, competitive and non-competitive freediving, competitive and non-competitive spearfishing and freediving photography, synchronised swimming, underwater football, underwater rugby, underwater hockey, underwater target shooting and snorkeling. There are also a range of "competitive apnea" disciplines; in which competitors attempt to attain great depths, times, or distances on a single breath. Historically, the term free diving was also used to refer to scuba diving, due to the freedom of movement compared with surface supplied diving. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...) 2nd Reconnaissance Battalion combat diver training with the Dräger LAR V rebreather Rebreather diving is underwater diving using diving rebreathers, a class of underwater breathing apparatus which recirculate the breathing gas exhaled by the diver after replacing the oxygen used and removing the carbon dioxide metabolic product. Rebreather diving is practiced by recreational, military and scientific divers in applications where it has advantages over open circuit scuba, and surface supply of breathing gas is impracticable. The main advantages of rebreather diving are extended gas endurance, low noise levels, and lack of bubbles. Rebreathers are generally used for scuba applications, but are also occasionally used for bailout systems for surface-supplied diving. Gas reclaim systems used for deep heliox diving use similar technology to rebreathers, as do saturation diving life-support systems, but in these applications the gas recycling equipment is not carried by the diver. Atmospheric diving suits also carry rebreather technology to recycle breathing gas as part of the life-support system, but this article covers the procedures of ambient pressure diving using rebreathers carried by the diver. Rebreathers are generally more complex to use than open circuit scuba, and have more potential points of failure, so acceptably safe use requires a greater level of skill, attention and situational awareness, which is usually derived from understanding the systems, diligent maintenance and overlearning the practical skills of operation and fault recovery. Fault tolerant design can make a rebreather less likely to fail in a way that immediately endangers the user, and reduces the task loading on the diver which in turn may lower the risk of operator error. (Full article...) Atmospheric diving suit An atmospheric diving suit (ADS) is a small one-person articulated submersible which resembles a suit of armour, with elaborate pressure joints to allow articulation while maintaining an internal pressure of one atmosphere. An ADS can enable diving at depths of up to 2,300 feet (700 m) for many hours by eliminating the majority of significant physiological dangers associated with deep diving. The occupant of an ADS does not need to decompress, and there is no need for special breathing gas mixtures, so there is little danger of decompression sickness or nitrogen narcosis when the ADS is functioning properly. An ADS can permit less skilled swimmers to complete deep dives, albeit at the expense of dexterity. Atmospheric diving suits in current use include the Newtsuit, Exosuit, Hardsuit and the WASP, all of which are self-contained hard suits that incorporate propulsion units. The Hardsuit is constructed from cast aluminum (forged aluminum in a version constructed for the US Navy for submarine rescue); the upper hull is made from cast aluminum, while the bottom dome is machined aluminum. The WASP is of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) body tube construction. (Full article...) Surface-supplied diver at the Monterey Bay Aquarium, Monterey, California Surface-supplied diving is a mode of underwater diving using equipment supplied with breathing gas through a diver's umbilical from the surface, either from the shore or from a diving support vessel, sometimes indirectly via a diving bell. This is different from scuba diving, where the diver's breathing equipment is completely self-contained and there is no essential link to the surface. The primary advantages of conventional surface supplied diving are lower risk of drowning and considerably larger breathing gas supply than scuba, allowing longer working periods and safer decompression. Disadvantages are the absolute limitation on diver mobility imposed by the length of the umbilical, encumbrance by the umbilical, and high logistical and equipment costs compared with scuba. The disadvantages restrict use of this mode of diving to applications where the diver operates within a small area, which is common in commercial diving work. The copper helmeted free-flow standard diving dress is the version which made commercial diving a viable occupation, and although still used in some regions, this heavy equipment has been superseded by lighter free-flow helmets, and to a large extent, lightweight demand helmets, band masks and full-face diving masks. Breathing gases used include air, heliox, nitrox and trimix. Saturation diving is a mode of surface supplied diving in which the divers live under pressure in a saturation system or underwater habitat and are decompressed only at the end of a tour of duty. Airline, or hookah diving, and "compressor diving" are lower technology variants also using a breathing air supply from the surface. (Full article...)

References

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