Doping in Professional U.S. Sports

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Doping in Professional U.S. Sports is a prevalent issue in which athletes use banned substances and are subject to random drug testing. If they are found guilty they may face various punishments dependent on the offense. Sports leagues, including Major League Baseball, National Football League, National Hockey League, and National Basketball Association, doping within these sports is a prevalent yet controversial issue. Doping in sport refers specifically to the use of banned athletic performance-enhancing drugs as well as illegal substances by athletes within the aforementioned leagues. While the use of banned substances to enhance performance is punishable within all these leagues, each league varies regarding banned substances, testing policies, type of test/frequency of testing, agencies that perform tests, and procedural details. Many well-known athletes across all these leagues have been found guilty of doping and were punished accordingly. Some of these people include, Barry Bonds of the San Francisco Giants (MLB), Stanley Roberts of the Philadelphia 76ers (NBA), Peyton Manning of the Denver Broncos (NFL). While NHL does not have a high incidence of doping as the other sports listed here, cocaine use has been on the rise recently and several NHL athletes have been found in possession of the drug.

While pages such as Doping in Sport, Doping in the United States, Doping in Baseball and World Anti-Doping Agency provide some similar information to that included on this page, here is a more comprehensive list of banned substances and procedural details for each professional U.S. sport.

U.S. Sports

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Professional Sport Commonly Abused Substances
Major League Baseball (MLB) Performance Enhancing Drugs

Steroids Stimulants

Drugs of Abuse

National Football League (NFL) Anabolic/Androgenic Steroids

Hormones

Anti-Estrogenic Agents

Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators

National Hockey League (NHL) Anabolic Steroids

Cocaine

National Basketball Association (NBA) Performance Enhancing Drugs

Steroids

Diuretics

Substance Athlete Population Percentage of Athletes Using Substance[1]
Any substance banned by WADA Elite athletes across sports (positive drug tests) 2% over past year
Anabolic Steroids Professional football players (self report) 9% used at some point in career
Opiates Professional football players (self report) 52% used at some point in career (71% of those misused at some point in career)
Smokeless tobacco Professional basketball players (self report) 35%-40% over past year
Professional football players (self report) 20%-30% over past year

Major League Baseball (MLB)

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List of Banned Compounds

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Most commonly abused substances in the MLB[2]

Drugs of Abuse:

Any and all substances listed in the Code of Federal Regulations’ Schedule of Controlled Substances is banned from Major League Baseball. This list goes as followed:

  1. Natural Cannabinoids (e.g., THC, Hashish and Marijuana)
  2. Synthetic THC and Cannabimimetics (e.g., K2 and Spice)
  3. Cocaine
  4. LSD
  5. Opiates (e.g., Oxycodone, Heroin, Codeine, and Morphine)
  6. MDMA (Ecstasy)
  7. GHB
  8. Phencyclidine (PCP)

Performance Enhancing Drugs: All anabolic androgenic steroids covered in the Code of Federal Regulations' Schedule of Controlled Substances are considered Performance Enhancing Substances. Below is a list of Performance Enhancing Substances covered by the Program:

  1. Androstadienedione
  2. Androstanediol
  3. Androstanedione
  4. Androstatrienedione (ATD)
  5. Androstenediol
  6. Androstenedione
  7. Androst-2-en-17-one (2-Androstenone, Delta-2)
  8. Androstenetrione (6-OXO)
  9. Bolandiol
  10. Bolasterone
  11. Boldenone
  12. Boldione
  13. Calusterone
  14. Clenbuterol
  15. Clostebol
  16. Danazol
  17. Dehydrochloromethyltestosterone
  18. Desoxy-methyltestosterone
  19. Δ1-dihydrotestosterone
  20. 4-dihydrotestosterone
  21. Drostanolone
  22. Epi-dihydrotestosterone
  23. Epitestosterone
  24. Ethylestrenol
  25. Fluoxymesterone
  26. Formebolone
  27. Furazabol
  28. 13a-ethyl-17a-hydroxygon-4-en-3-one
  29. Gestrinone
  30. 4-hydroxytestosterone
  31. 4-hydroxy-19-nortestosterone
  32. Mestanolone
  33. Mesterolone
  34. Methandienone
  35. Methandriol
  36. Methasterone (Superdrol)
  37. Methenolone
  38. Methyldienolone
  39. Methylnortestosterone
  40. Methylstenbolone (Ultradrol, M-Sten)
  41. Methyltestosterone
  42. Methyltrienolone (Metribolone)
  43. Mibolerone
  44. 17a-methyl-Δ1-dihydrotestosterone
  45. Nandrolone
  46. Norandrostenediol
  47. Norandrostenedione
  48. Norbolethone
  49. Norclostebol
  50. Norethandrolone
  51. Oxabolone
  52. Oxandrolone
  53. Oxymesterone
  54. Oxymetholone
  55. Prostanozol
  56. Quinbolone
  57. Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators (SARMs)
  58. Stanozolol
  59. Stenbolone
  60. Testosterone
  61. Tetrahydrogestrinone
  62. Tibolone
  63. Trenbolone
  64. Zeranol
  65. Zilpaterol
  66. Any salt, ester or ether of a drug or substance listed above
  67. Human Growth Hormone (hGH), Secretagogues and Peptides, including Alexamorelin, CJC-1295, Growth Hormone Releasing Hormone (GHRH), Growth Hormone Releasing Peptides (GHRP), Hexarelin, Ibutamoren (MK-0677), Ipamorelin, Myostatin Inhibitors, Pralmorelin, Sermorelin, Tesamorelin, Thymosin Beta 4 (TB-500), and Triptorelin
  68. Insulin-like Growth Factor (IGF-1), including all isomers of IGF-1 sometimes referred to as Mechano Growth Factors
  69. Chorionic Gonadotrophin (hCG) and LuteinizingHormone (LH)
  70. Aromatase Inhibitors, including Anastrozole, Letrozole, Aminoglutethimide, Exemestane, Formestane, and Testolactone
  71. Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators, including Raloxifen, Tamoxifen, and Toremifen
  72. Other Anti-estrogens, including Clomiphene, Cyclofenil, and Fulvestrant
  73. Metabolic Modulators, including Peroxisome Proliferator Activated Receptor δ (PPARδ) agonists, including GW 1516, GW 0742, and AICAR
  74. Erythropoiesis-Stimulating Agents, including Erythropoietin (EPO)

Stimulants: Stimulants include the following:

  1. Adrafinil
  2. Amfepramone (Diethylpropion)
  3. Amiphenazole
  4. Amphetamine
  5. Amphetaminil
  6. Armodafinil
  7. Benfluorex
  8. Benzphetamine
  9. Benzylpiperazine
  10. Bromantan
  11. Carphedon
  12. Cathine (Norpseudoephedrine)
  13. Clobenzorex
  14. Cropropamide
  15. Crotetamide
  16. Dimethylamphetamine
  17. Ephedrine
  18. Etamivan
  19. Ethylamphetamine
  20. Etilefrine
  21. Famprofazone
  22. Fenbutrazate
  23. Fencamfamine
  24. Fenethylline
  25. Fenfluramine
  26. Fenproporex
  27. Furfenorex
  28. Heptaminol
  29. Isometheptene
  30. Meclofenoxate
  31. Mefenorex
  32. Mephentermine
  33. Mesocarb
  34. Methamphetamine (Methylamphetamine)
  35. Methylenedioxyamphetamine
  36. Methylephedrine
  37. Methylhexaneamine (Dimethylamylamine, DMAA)
  38. Methylphenidate
  39. Modafinil
  40. N,alpha-Diethylphenylethylamine (N,a-DEPEA)
  41. N-ethyl-1-phenyl-2-butanamine
  42. Nikethamide
  43. Norfenefrine
  44. Norfenfluramine
  45. Octopamine
  46. Oxilofrine (Methylsynephrine)
  47. Pemoline
  48. Pentetrazol
  49. Phentermine
  50. Phenpromethamine
  51. Prenylamine
  52. Prolintane
  53. Phendimetrazine (Phenmetrazine)
  54. Propylhexedrine
  55. Sibutramine
  56. Tuaminoheptane
  57. DHEA[3]

Drug Tests

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Test and Frequency of Tests

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According to MLB rules all players are subject to random urine testing during the season as well as once during spring training; there is no limit to the amount of random drug testing during the season. However in off-seasons players are only subject to random urine testing for DHEA (formally known as dehydroepiandrosterone, is a performance enhancing drug. It is a predecessor to testosterone, meaning it results in increased testosterone levels in the body, and therefore increased muscle mass)[4] and performance enhancing drugs.

Players are also subject to announced blood tests for the use of hGH (human Growth Hormone) during the season, off-seasons, and spring training.

In addition players are subject to testing for performance enhancing drugs and DHEA if there is reasonable cause to believe the player is doping. If there is any information provided that a player has bought, sold, used, or possessed these drugs they are subject to testing.

There is however, exemption from these rules if banned substances are being used for therapeutic purposes. Players with documented/ valid medical prescriptions for these banned substances will be granted a TUE and are thus exempt from punishment. In other words, players with a TUE for prohibited substances do not violate the program by possessing or using that substance.

Procedural Details

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Players who test positive for a Performance Enhancing Drug will be subject to the following penalties.

  1. First Violation: 80- game suspension
  2. Second Violation: 162-game suspension/ 183 days of pay suspension
  3. Third Violation: Permanent suspension from Major League/Minor League Baseball

Players who test positive for a Stimulant will be subject to the following penalties

  1. First Violation: Follow-up testing
  2. Second Violation: 25-game suspension
  3. Third Violation: Determined by the Arbitration Board

Players who test positive for DHEA will be subject to the following penalties

  1. First Violation: Follow-up testing
  2. Second Violation: 25-game suspension
  3. Third Violation:80-game suspension
  4. Fourth and subsequent violations: Determined by the Arbitration Board

Players who are disciplined for breaking these rules will be subject to 6 unannounced urine collections and 3 unannounced blood tests in every subsequent year for using performance enhancing drugs.

Agencies that perform tests
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Testing is ordered by the Medical Testing Officer and is performed by the Director of the Montreal Laboratory to ensure all testing remains unbiased.

National Football League (NFL)

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List of Banned Compounds

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Anabolic/Androgenic Steroids

  1. Androstenediol
  2. Androstenedione
  3. 1-Androstenediol
  4. 1-Androstenedione
  5. Bolandiol
  6. Bolasterone
  7. Boldenone
  8. Boldione
  9. Calusterone
  10. Clostebol
  11. Danazol
  12. Dehydrochloromethyltestosterone
  13. Dehydroepiandrosterone
  14. Desoxymethyltestosterone
  15. Dihydrotestosterone
  16. Drostanolone
  17. Ethylestrenol
  18. Fluoxymesterone
  19. Formebolone
  20. Furazabol
  21. Gestrinone
  22. 17-Hydroxypregnenedione
  23. 17-Hydroxyprogesterone
  24. Hydroxytestosterone
  25. Mestanolone
  26. Mesterolone
  27. Methandienone
  28. Methandriol
  29. Methandrostenolone
  30. Methenolone
  31. Methyltestosterone
  32. Methyl-1-testosterone
  33. 7α-Methyl-19-nortestosterone
  34. Methylnortestosterone
  35. Methyltrienolone
  36. Metribolone
  37. Mibolerone
  38. Nandrolone
  39. 19-Norandrostenediol
  40. 19-Norandrostenedione
  41. Norboletone
  42. Norclostebol
  43. Norethandrolone
  44. Normethandrolone
  45. 19-Nortestosterone (Nandrolone)
  46. Oxabolone
  47. Oxandrolone
  48. 6-Oxoandrosterone
  49. Oxymesterone
  50. Oxymetholone
  51. Prostanazol
  52. Quinbolone
  53. Progesterone
  54. Stanozolol
  55. Stenbolone
  56. Testosterone
  57. 1-Testosterone
  58. Tetrahydrogestrinone
  59. Trenbolone

...and other substances with similar chemical structure and biological structure...

Hormones

  1. Human Growth Hormone (hGH)
  2. Animal Growth Hormones
  3. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin (hCG)
  4. Insulin Growth Factor (IGF-1)
  5. Erythropoietin (EPO)

Anti-Estrogenic Agents:

  1. Aminoglutethimide
  2. Anastrozole
  3. 4-androstene-3,6,17
  4. Clomiphene
  5. Cyclofenil
  6. Exemestane
  7. Fadrozole
  8. Formestane
  9. Fulvestrant
  10. Letrozole
  11. Raloxifene
  12. Tamoxifen
  13. Testolactone
  14. Toremifene
  15. Vorazole

Selective Androgen Receptor Modulators (SARMs)[5]

Drug Tests

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Test and Frequency of Tests[6]

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According to NFL rules all players are subject to pre-employment, annual, seasonal, post-seasonal, and off-season urine testing. Each week of the regular season and post-season ten players on each club are randomly selected for testing. During the off-season players under contract may be testing up to six times.[7]

Procedural Details

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Reasonable cause testing may be required when the IPA receives documentation that a Player may have violated the Policy. Oftentimes the Player is subject to the Reasonable Cause Testing Program. Once found guilty a player, he may appeal.

  1. First Violation: Suspended without pay for X amount of games depending on the offense.
  2. For Diuretic or Masking Agent -- two regular and/or postseason games.
  3. For Stimulants or Anabolic Agent -- four regular and/or postseason games.

For a Prohibited Substance plus a Diuretic or Masking Agent/Attempt to Substitute, Dilute or Adulterate a Specimen/Attempt to Manipulate a Test Result/Violation of Section 5:

  1. First Violation: Suspension for up to six regular and/or postseason games.
  2. Second Violation: Suspension for 10 games whether it be regular or post season without pay.
  3. Third Violation: Suspension for 2 seasons from NFL without pay.
Agencies that perform tests
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All specimens are collected by an authorized specimen collector under the authority of the Collection Vendor and analyzed at the appropriate laboratory. All testing and enforcement is done through the Independent Administrator (IPA).[8]

National Hockey League (NHL)

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List of Banned Compounds

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Drugs that are banned in the NHL are determined by the World Anti- Doping Agency's (WADA) list of prohibited performance enhancing substances. From here there are recommendations made to the NHL and NHLPA as to which performance enhancing substances are relevant to the sport of hockey. [9]

This list includes drugs of abuse and most recently there was debate regarding the presence of cocaine in NHL, which led to it's addition to the prohibited substance list.

Drug Tests

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Test and Frequency of Tests

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According to NHL rules, drug testing procedures are similar during training camp, regular season and playoffs. Each club is subject to team-wide, no-notice testing once during training camp. Teams will be selected at random for testing during the regular season and individual players will be randomly selected throughout the season. Tests are conducted at work on the day of practice but not on game days. Throughout the off-season, a maximum of 60 drug tests randomly, without notice. [9]

Procedural Details

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A player's refusal to test, tampering with tests, or failed test will result in a positive test result. Such results are subject to appeal to the impartial arbitrator within 48 hours of being notified by the Program Doctor. Disciplinary penalties for a positive test work as follows: All of which include mandatory referral to the SABH Program and possible treatment, if necessary.

  1. First violation: a suspension of twenty (20) NHL Games without pay.
  2. Second violation: a suspension of sixty (60) NHL Games without pay.
  3. Third violation: a "permanent" suspension. A suspended player may reapply via the Program Committee for discretionary reinstatement after a minimum period of two years.[9]

Agencies that perform tests

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The Program Committee is responsible for establishing educational programs for players on the dangers of drug abuse. The Program Committee's responsibilities also include deciding what drugs should be deemed "prohibited," select laboratories and collecting authorities, monitor and oversee the Therapeutic Use Exemption ("TUE") process and creating policy for the destruction of samples and other related documents and records.

National Basketball Association (NBA)

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List of Banned Compounds

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Prohibited substances: All drugs of abuse along with any substances that fall within the categories below are prohibited from the Program. 1. Amphetamines (including methamphetamine and MDMA) 2. Cocaine 3. LSD 4. Opiates 5. PCP 6. Marijuana 7. Steroids 8. Performance enhancing drugs 9. Diuretics

Drug Tests

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Test and Frequency of Tests

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All players are subject to 4 random tests per season. An accused player has 5 days to request a retest. There is also reasonable cause testing (If there is reason to believe a player is violating drug rules the NBA will hold a hearing to determine if there is reasonable cause to do a drug test). [10]

Procedural Details

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If a player tests positive for a Drug of Abuse he will be dismissed or disqualified from the NBA. A player will also be dismissed if they plead guilty or no contest to a crime involving the use or possession of a Drug of Abuse.

Players who test positive for SPEDs will be subject to the following penalties.

  1. First violation: Player will be suspended for 10 games and will be subject to entry into the SPEDs Program.
  2. Second violation: Player will be suspended for 25 games and re-entry into SPEDs program
  3. Third violation: Player will be suspended for one year and re-entry into SPEDs program
  4. Fourth violation: Player will be dismissed or disqualified from the NBA

A player will also be dismissed or disqualified from the NBA if he is convicted of, or pleads guilty to a crime involving the use or possession of a SPED Players who test positive for Marijuana will be subject to the following penalties.

  1. First Violation: Player will be required to enter the Marijuana Program
  2. Second Violation: Player will be subject to a $25,000 fine and re-entry into the Marijuana Program
  3. Third Violation: Player will be suspended for five games and re-entry into the Marijuana Program.
  4. Fourth or Subsequent Violations: Player will be suspended for five games longer than the player’s immediately preceding suspension.

Players who test positive for Diuretics will be subject to the following penalties:

  1. If a player tests positive during random testing he will be subject to the same penalties that are implemented for a positive test result for SPEDs.
  2. If a player tests positive during Reasonable Cause Testing, he will be subject to the penalties for a positive test for the prohibited substance for which the authorization for reasonable cause testing was issued.

Agencies that perform tests

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All drug tests are analyzed by certified laboratories selected by the NBA and approved by the Medical Director.

See also

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Doping in Sport

Doping in the United States

Doping in Baseball

World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA)

References

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  1. ^ Reardon, Claudia. "Drug Abuse in Athletes". www.dovepress.com. Retrieved 2016-04-10.
  2. ^ "List Of Every 2015 MLB And Minor League Drug Suspension (It's A Long One)". Forbes. Retrieved 2016-04-10.
  3. ^ "Prohibited Substances" (PDF). Major League Baseball's Joint Drug Prevention and Treatment Program. Major League Baseball. 2015. Retrieved 2016-03-16.
  4. ^ "ESPN". Sports Nutrition. ESPN. Retrieved 2016-03-10.
  5. ^ "NFL List of Prohibited Substances" (PDF). NFLPA. Retrieved 2016-03-17.
  6. ^ "NFL Players Association - Drug Policies". www.nflpa.com. Retrieved 2016-03-17.
  7. ^ "Behind the Shield: NFL drug testing policy not as good as sold". The San Diego Union-Tribune. Retrieved 2016-03-17.
  8. ^ "National Football League Policy Program on Substances of Abuse" (PDF). National Football League Players Association. National Football League Players Association. 2015. Retrieved 2016-03-10.
  9. ^ a b c "Collective Bargaining Agreement Between National Hockey League and National Hockey League Players' Association" (PDF). National Hockey League: 188–194. September 16, 2012.
  10. ^ "NBA, NBPA to Add HGH Testing into Anti-drug Program." NBA.com. Accessed April 03, 2016. http://www.nba.com/2015/news/04/16/nba-and-nbpa-to-introduce-hgh-blood-testing/.