User:Fowler&fowler/History of Pakistan

A relief map of Pakistan showing historic sites.

The history of Pakistan — which for the period preceding the nation's founding in 1947, is a part of the histories of Afghanistan, India, and Iran — traces back to the earliest known human settlements in South Asia. Spanning the western expanse of the Indian subcontinent and the eastern borderlands of the Iranian plateau, the region of present-day Pakistan served both as the fertile ground of some of South Asia's major civilizations and as the subcontinent's gateway to the Middle East and Central Asia.

Pakistan is home to some of the most important sites of archaeology, including the earliest palaeolithic hominid site in South Asia in the Soan River valley. Situated on the first coastal migration route of anatomically modern Homo sapiens out of Africa, the region was inhabited early by modern humans. The 9,000-year history of village life in South Asia goes back to the Neolithic (7000 — 4300 BCE) site of Mehrgarh in Pakistan, and the 5,000-year history of urban civilization in South Asia to the various sites of the Indus Valley Civilization, including Mohenjo Daro and Harappa.

The ensuing millennia saw the region of present-day Pakistan absorb many influences — represented among others in the Vedic-Buddhist site of Taxila, the Greco-Buddhist site of Takht-i-Bahi, the 14th-century Islamic-Sindhi monuments of Thatta, and the 17th-century Mughal monuments of Lahore. From the late 18th century, the region was gradually appropriated by the British East India Company — resulting in 90 years of direct British rule, and ending with the creation of Pakistan in 1947, through the efforts, among others, of its future national poet Allama Iqbal and its founder, Muhammad Ali Jinnah. Since then, the country has experienced both civilian-democratic and military rule, resulting in periods of significant economic and military growth as well those of instability; significant during the latter, was the secession, in 1971, of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh.

The Neolithic age

Main article: Mehrgarh

Mehrgarh, one of the most important Neolithic (7000-3200 BCE) sites in archaeology, lies on the "Kachi plain of Baluchistan, Pakistan, and is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming (wheat and barley) and herding (cattle, sheep and goats) in South Asia." Mehrgarh was discovered in 1974 by the archaeological team of Jean-François Jarrige, and was excavated continuously between 1974 and 1986. The earliest settlement at Mehrgarh — in the northeast corner of the 495-acre (2.0 km²) site — was a small farming village dated between 7000 BCE and 5500 BCE. Early Mehrgarh residents lived in mud brick houses, stored their grain in granaries, fashioned tools with local copper ore, and lined their large basket containers with bitumen. They cultivated six-row barley, einkorn and emmer wheat, jujubes and dates, and herded sheep, goats and cattle. Residents of the later period (5500-2600 BCE) put much effort into crafts, including flint knapping, tanning, bead production, and metal working. The site was occupied continuously until about 2600 BCE. Between 2600 and 2000 BCE, climatic changes caused Balochistan became more arid causing Mehrgarh to be abandoned as the inhabitants migrated to the fertile Indus valley. Since the Indus civilisation was in its initial stages of development at that time, Mehrgarh is regarded as a precursor to the Indus Valley Civilization. In April 2006, "eleven drilled molar crowns from nine adults" were discovered in Mehrgarh, providing the oldest (and first early Neolithic) evidence for the drilling of teeth in vivo (in a living person).

The Bronze age

Main articles: Indus Valley Civilization and Vedic period

The "Priest King" statue, Mohenjo-daro, c. 2500 BCE, National Museum, Karachi, Pakistan

Mohenjo-Daro, 25 km southwest of Larkana, was center of Indus Valley Civilization 2600 BCE-1700 BCE

The Indus Valley civilization developed between 3300-1700 BCE on the banks of the Indus River and covered large areas of present-day Pakistan and India. The major urban centers were at Harappa, Mohenjo-daro, Dholavira, Ganweriwala, Lothal, and Rakhigarhi with more than a thousand settlements spread as far as the Arabian Sea coast of India, southeastern Iran and the Himalaya mountains. At its peak, the civilization may have had more than five million inhabitants. The Indus Valley civilisation has been tentatively identified as proto-Dravidian, but this cannot be confirmed until the Indus Valley script has not been definitively deciphered. The Indus Valley civilization collapsed abruptly around 1700 BCE, possibly due to a cataclysmic earthquake or the drying up of the Ghaggar-Hakra River.

The Kulli culture (2500 - 2000 BCE) of southern Balochistan may have been an offshoot of the Indus Valley civilisation because it had several settlements and pottery and other artifacts which were similar to those of the Indus Valley civilization. The people of this culture built houses from local stone and engaged in agriculture with highly developed water management based on dams.

"Ancient Hindu wood carving from Kashmir Smas, Peshawar District" Unknown photographer 1880s. British Library

In the early part of the second millennium BCE, Indo-European tribes from Central Asia or the southern Russian steppes migrated into the region, and settled in the Sapta Sindhu area between the Kabul River and the Upper Ganges-Yamuna Doab. The resulting Vedic culture lasted until the middle of the first millennium BCE when there were marked linguistic, cultural and political changes. During the Vedic culture, the hymns of the Rigveda were composed and the foundations of Hinduism were laid. Although limited archaeological and epigraphic evidence of the migration exists in South Asia, similar migrations of Indo-European peoples were recorded in other regions. For example, a treaty signed between the Hittites, who had arrived in Anatolia early in the second millennium BCE, and the Mitanni empire "invoked four deities — Indara, Uruvna, Mitira, and the Nasatyas (names that occur in the Rigveda as Indra, Varuna, Mitra, and the Asvins)."

The city of Taxila, in present-day northern Pakistan, became important in Hinduism (and later in Buddhism). "The great Indian epic Mahabharata was, according to tradition, first recited at Taxila at the great snake sacrifice of King Janamejaya, one of the heroes of the story."

Persian and Greek invasion

Achaemenid empire

Main article: Achaemenid dynasty

Achaemenid empire at its greatest extent

The lands of Pakistan were ruled by the Persian Achaemenid Empire (c.520 BCE) during the reign of Darius the Great until Alexander the Great's conquest. It became part of the empire as a satrapy that included the lands of present-day Pakistani Punjab, the Indus River, from the borders of Gandhara down to the Arabian Sea, and other parts of the Indus plain. According to Herodotus of Halicarnassus, it was the most populous and richest satrapy of the twenty satrapies of the empire. It was during the Persian rule that name India was coined. When the Indus River valley became the eastern most satrapy of Persians, they named it because of the Indus River. Vedic Aryans called the area Saptha Sindhu with the main river was called Sindhu. Persians had difficulty in pronouncing s, called it Hindu. As per the inscriptions of Darius, they called the satrapy Hindush. Greeks took this name from Persians and called the river Indus and the region India. Herodotus (490-425? BCE), in his book "The Histories", described this satrapy of Darius as India. (Probably not needed) Achaemenid rule lasted about 186 years. The Achaemenids used Aramaic script for the Persian language. After the end of Achaemenid rule, the use of Aramaic script in the Indus plain was diminished, although we know from Asokan inscriptions that it was still in use two centuries later. Other scripts, such as Kharosthi (a script derived from Aramaic) and Greek became more common after the arrival of the Macedonians and Greeks.

Alexander's empire

Main articles: Alexander the Great and Greek conquests in India

Map of Alexander's empire.

The interaction between Hellenistic Greece and Buddhism started when Alexander the Great conquered Asia Minor, the Achaemenid Empire and the lands of Pakistan in 334 BCE, defeating Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes (near modern-day Jhelum) and conquering much of the Punjab region. Alexander's troops refused to go beyond the Beas River — which today runs along part of the Indo-Pakistan border — and he took most of his army southwest, adding nearly all of the ancient lands in present-day Pakistan to his empire. Alexander created garrisons for his troops in his new territories, and founded several cities in the areas of the Oxus, Arachosia, and Bactria, and Macedonian/Greek settlements in Gandhara, such as Taxila, and Punjab. The regions included the Khyber Pass — a geographical passageway south of the Himalayas and the Hindu Kush mountains — and the Bolan Pass, on a trade route connecting Drangiana, Arachosia and other Persian and Central Asia areas to the lower Indus plain. It is through these regions that most of the interaction between South Asia and Central Asia took place, generating intense cultural exchange and trade.

The Golden Age

"Three statues of Bodhisattvas" from Jamal-Garhi, Peshawar district (now northern Pakistan). 1st-5th century CE. Photograph by James Craddock. 1880. British Library

From 3rd century BC to 5th century CE the northwestern parts of the Indian subcontinent came under continuous invasions of different Turko-Iranian, Bacterians, Sakas, Parthians, Kushans, and Huns.

It is surmised that Iranian tribes existed in western Pakistan during a very early age and that Pakhtun tribes were inhabitants around the area of Peshawar prior to the period of Alexander the Great as Herodotus refers to the local peoples as the "Paktui" and as a fearsome pagan tribe similar to the Bactrians. Iranian Balochi tribes did not arrive at least until the first millennium CE and would not expand as far as Sindh until the 2nd millennium.

Maurya Dynasty

Main articles: Magadha and Maurya Empire

Reduce to half its size

Rock with Asoka inscriptions at Shahbazgarhi, Peshawar District, (now Pakistan) showing the eastern face with the edicts I-XI. Photo: James Craddock c. 1870s.

The Mauryan dynasty lasted about 180 years, nearly as long as Achaemenid rule, and began with Chandragupta Maurya. Chandragupta Maurya lived in Taxila and met Alexander and had many opportunities to observe the Macedonian army there. He raised his own military using Macedonian tactics to overthrow the Nanda Dynasty in Magadha. Following Alexander's death on June 10, 323 BCE, his Diadochi (generals) founded their own kingdoms in Asia Minor and Central Asia. General Seleucus set up the Seleucid Kingdom, which included the Pakistan region. Chandragupta Maurya, taking advantage of the fragmentation of power that followed Alexander's death, invaded and captured the Punjab and Gandhara. Later, the Eastern part of the Seleucid Kingdom broke away to form the Greco-Bactrian Kingdom (third century – second century BCE).

Chandragupta's grandson Ashoka the Great (273-232 BCE), is said to have been the greatest of the Mauryan emperors. Ashoka the Great was the ruler of the Mauryan empire from 273 BCE to 232 BCE. A convert to Buddhism, Ashoka reigned over most of South Asia and parts of Central Asia, from present-day Afghanistan to Bengal and as far south as Mysore. He converted to the Buddhist faith following remorse for his bloody conquest of the kingdom of Kalinga in Orissa. He set in stone the Edicts of Asoka. Nearly all of the Asokan edicts found today in Pakistan are written either in the Aramaic script (Aramiac had been the lingua franca of the Achaemenid Empire) or in Kharosthi, which is believed to be derived from Aramaic.

Greco-Buddhist period

(Probably should be reduced to half its size)

Main articles: Gandhara, Greco-Buddhism, Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, and Indo-Greek kingdom

"The Birth of Buddha." Buddhist sculpture slab excavated at Lorian Tangai, Peshawar District, (now Pakistan). Photograph by Alexander Caddy, 1896. British Library.

Greco-Buddhism (also spelled Græco-Buddhism) was the syncretism between the culture of Classical Greece and Buddhism in the area of modern Afghanistan and Pakistan, between the fourth century BCE and the fifth century CE. Greco-Buddhism influenced the artistic (and, possibly, conceptual) development of Buddhism, and in particular Mahayana Buddhism, before it spread central and eastern Asia from the 1st century CE.

Demetrius (the son of the Greco-Bactrian king Euthydemus) invaded northern India in 180 BCE as far as Pataliputra and established an Indo-Greek kingdom that lasted nearly two centuries. To the south, the Greeks captured Sindh and nearby coastal areas. The invasion was completed by 175 BCE, and the Sungas were confined to the east, although the Indo-Greeks lost some territory in the Gangetic plain. Meanwhile in Bactria, the usurper Eucratides killed Demetrius in battle.

"The Death of Buddha." Buddhist sculpture slab excavated at Lorian Tangai, Peshawar District. Photograph by Alexander Caddy, 1896. British Library.

The Indo-Greek Menander I (reigned 155-130 BCE) drove the Greco-Bactrians out of Gandhara and beyond the Hindu Kush, becoming king shortly after his victory. His territories covered the eastern dominions of the divided Greek empire of Bactria (Panjshir and Kapisa) and extended to the Punjab region, with many tributaries to the south and east, possibly as far as Mathura. The capital Sagala (modern Sialkot) prospered greatly under Menander's rule. Menander is one of the few Bactrian kings mentioned by Greek authors, among them Apollodorus of Artemita, who claimed that he was an even greater conqueror than Alexander the Great. Strabosays Menander was one of the two Bactrian kings who extended their power farthest into South Asia. The Milinda Pañha, a classical Buddhist text, praises Menander, saying that "as in wisdom so in strength of body, swiftness, and valour there was found none equal to Milinda in all India".

Ruins of Hindu temple and gateway in the Indo-Greek Kashmiri style at Malot, Jhelum District. Photo: Joseph David Beglar, 1870s.

Menander's empire survived him in a fragmented manner until the last independent Greek king, Strato II, disappeared around 10 CE. Around 125 BCE, the Greco-Bactrian king Heliocles, son of Eucratides, fled from the Yuezhi invasion of Bactria and relocated to Gandhara, pushing the Indo-Greeks east of the Jhelum River. Various petty kings ruled into the early first century CE, until the conquests by the Scythians, Parthians and the Yuezhi, who founded the Kushan dynasty. The last known mention of an Indo-Greek ruler is an inscription on a signet ring of the 1st century CE in the name of a king Theodamas, from the Bajaur area of Gandhara. No coins of him are known, but the signet bears in Kharoshthi script the inscription "Su Theodamasa", where "Su" was the Greek transliteration of the Kushan royal title "Shau" ("Shah" or "King").

Scythian invasion

Main article: Indo-Scythians

The Indo-Scythians were a local dynasty descended from the Sakas (Scythians) who migrated from southern Siberia into ancient Bactria, Sogdiana, Kashmir and finally into Arachosia from the middle of the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century BCE. They displaced the Indo-Greeks and ruled a kingdom that stretched from Gandhara in Pakistan to Mathura in India. Scythian tribes disseminated further east into northwestern India and throughout the Iranian plateau in the west.

Parthian Empire

Main articles: Parthia and Indo-Parthian Kingdom

The Parni were a Central Asian nomadic Iranian tribe who defeated and supplanted the Seleucid rulers of Iran and later annexed all of what is today Pakistan. Following the decline of the central Parthian authority in Iran following clashes with the Roman Empire, a local Indo-Parthian Kingdom was established during the 1st century CE, by a Parthian leader named Gondophares, and covered much of what is today southeastern Afghanistan, Pakistan and northwestern India. The Kingdom's capital was at Taxila, (Pakistan)[1] Archived 2007-10-24 at the Wayback Machine.

Kushan Empire

Main article: Kushan Empire

Could be reduced to half its length

The kingdom was founded by King Heraios, and greatly expanded by his successor, Kujula Kadphises. Kadphises' son Vima Takto conquered territory now in India, but lost much of the western parts of the kingdom, including Gandhara, to the Parthian king Gondophares. The rule of Kanishka I, the fourth Kushan emperor, who flourished for at least 28 years from c. 127, was administered from a winter capital in Purushapura (now Peshawar in northwestern Pakistan) and a summer capital in Bagram (then known as Kapisa).

The rule of the Kushans linked the seagoing trade of the Indian Ocean with the commerce of the Silk Road through the long-civilized Indus Valley. At the height of the dynasty, the Kushans loosely oversaw a territory that extended to the Aral Sea through present-day Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Pakistan into northern India. The loose unity and comparative peace of such a vast expanse encouraged long-distance trade, brought Chinese silks to Rome, and created strings of flourishing urban centers. Kanishka is renowned in Buddhist tradition for having convened a great Buddhist council in Kashmir. This council is attributed with having marked the official beginning of the pantheistic Mahayana Buddhism and its scission with Nikaya Buddhism.

Buddhist ruins at Ali Masjid in the Khyber Pass, showing a length of wall covered in niches with Buddha images. Photo: John Burke, 1878.

The art and culture of Gandhara, at the crossroads of the Kushan hegemony, are the best known expressions of Kushan influences to Westerners. The interaction of Greek and Buddhist cultures continued over several centuries until it ended in the fifth century CE with the invasions of the White Huns (see also Indo-Hephthalites), and later the expansion of Islam. During the remaining centuries before the coming of Islam in 711, the White Huns, Indo-Parthians, and Kushans shared control of what is today Pakistan with the Sassanid Persian empire which dominated much of western and southern Pakistan.

The Gupta Empire

Main article: Gupta Empire

The Gupta Empire arose in northern India around the second century CE and much of what is today Sindh made up the northwesternmost province of the empire. The era of the Guptas was marked by a local Hindu revival, although Buddhism continued to flourish.

The Sassanid Period

Main articles: Sassanid Empire and Indo-Sassanids

The Sassanid Empire of Persia, who were close contemporaries of the Guptas, began to expand into Pakistan, where they established their rule. The mingling of Indian and Persian cultures in this region gave birth to the Indo-Sassanid culture, which flourished in the western part of the Punjab and in the western areas now known in Pakistan as the North West Frontier Province and Balochistan. The last western Buddhist Hindu dynasty, the Shahis, may have been influenced by this culture.

The Middle Age

Arab Rule

Main articles: Caliph and Muslim conquests

The Age of the Caliphs

  Prophet Mohammad, 622-632

  Patriarchal Caliphate, 632-661

  Umayyad Caliphate, 661-750

Before the birth of Islam in the 7th century the region was dominated by native rulers in the east and the Sassanid Persians in the west. Early in the 8th century (712 CE), and more than half a century after the defeat of the Sassanids at the hands of the Ummayad empire, a Syrian Muslim chieftain named Muhammad bin Qasim conquered the region and extended Umayyad rule to the Indus River. Qasim, a youth of 20, led a small force of 6,000 Syrian tribesmen and reached the borders of Kashmir within three years.

Muhammad Bin Qasim's conquests could not be sustained for very long. Umayyad rule, which extended from Lisbon, Portugal to Lahore, Punjab was spread too thin to be manageable. Upon Qasim's departure to Baghdad, the domain of Muslim rule shrank to Sindh and southern Punjab, where consolidation took place and conversion to Islam was widespread, especially amongst the native Buddhist majority. However, in regions north of Multan, Buddhists, Hindus and other non-Muslim groups remained numerous. During the 300-year period (712-1000), the Umayyad territory in South Asia was carved into two parts: the northern region comprising of the Punjab reverted back to the control of Hindu kingdoms, while the southern areas, comprising of Multan, Sindh, and Balochistan, which remained Muslim and owed allegiance to the Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphs, became known as the administrative province of As-Sindh with capital at Al-Mansurah, 72 km north of present-day Hyderabad.

The Ghaznavid Dynasty

Should be reduced to at most half the current size

Main article: Ghaznavid Empire

Mahmud and Ayaz. The Sultan (in red), with Malik Ayaz (in green) standing behind. On the Sultan's right is Shah Abbas I, who reigned 600 years later. Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art.

In 997 AD Sultan Mahmud of Ghazni succeeded his father after his death. He conquered the major territory of Khorasan and in 1005 marched further into Peshawar. From this strategic location Mahmud was able to capture Panjab in 1007, Tanseer fell in 1014, Kashmir was captured in 1015 and Qanoch fell in 1017. By 1027 Sultan Mahmud had captured Pakistan and parts of northern India.

In 1010 Mahmud captured what is today the Ghor Province (Ghor) and by 1011 annexed Balochistan. Sultan Mahmud had already had relationships with the leadership in Balkh through marriage and its local emir Abu Nasr Mohammad offered his services to Sultan Mahmud and offered his daughter to Muhammad son of Sultan Mahmud. After Nasr’s death Mahmud brought Balkh under his leadership. This alliance greatly helped Mahmud during his expeditions into Pakistan and northern India.

In 1030 Sultan Mahmud fell gravely ill and died at the age of 59. Universities were formed to study various subjects such as math, religion, the humanities and medicine were taught, but only within the laws of the Sharia. Islam was the main religion of his kingdom and the Perso-Afghan dialect of Dari language was made the official language.

Ghaznavid rule in Pakistan lasted for over one hundred and seventy five years from 1010 to 1187. It was during this period that Lahore assumed considerable importance as the eastern-most bastion of Muslim power and as an outpost for further advance towards the riches of the east. Apart from being the second capital — after Malik Ayaz was awarded the throne of Lahore — and later the only capital of the Ghaznavid kingdom, Lahore had great military and strategic significance. Whoever controlled this city could look forward to and be in a position to sweep the whole of East Punjab to Panipat and Delhi.

By the end of his reign, Mahmud's empire extended from Kurdistan in the west to Samarkand in the northeast, and from the Caspian Sea to the Yamuna. All of what is today Pakistan and Kashmir came under the Ghaznavid empire. The wealth brought back to Ghazni was enormous, and contemporary historians (e.g. Abolfazl Beyhaghi, Ferdowsi) give detailed descriptions of the building activity and importance of Lahore, as well as of the conqueror's support of literature.

Ruins of Somanatha Temple at Somnath, Prabhas Patan, Gujarat. The sanctuary of the temple was destroyed by Mahmud of Ghazni in 1026. Photo: D.H. Sykes, 1869.

Often reviled as a persecutor of Hindus (and in many cases Hindu temples were looted and destroyed) much of Mahmud's army consisted of Hindus and some of the commanders of his army were also of Hindu origin. Sonday Rai was the Commander of Mahmud's crack regiment and took part in several important campaigns with him. The coins struck during Mahmud's reign bore his own image on one side and the figure of a Hindu deity on the other.

Mahmud, as a patron of learning, filled his court with scholars including Ferdowsi the poet, Abolfazl Beyhaghi the historian (whose work on the Ghanavid Empire is perhaps the most substantive primary source of the period) and Al-Biruni the versatile scholar who wrote the informative Ta'rikh al-Hind ("Chronicles of India"). He invited the scholars from all over the world and was thus known as an abductor of scholars. During his rule, Lahore also became a great center of learning and culture. Lahore was called 'Small Ghazni' as Ghazni received far more attention during Mahmud's reign. Saad Salman, a poet of those times, also wrote about the academic and cultural life of Muslim Lahore and its growing importance.

The Islamic sultanates

Muhammad of Ghor

Main articles: Muhammad Ghori and Rajput

Water-colour of the fortress and citadel of Ghazni (Afghanistan) by James Atkinson, 1839.

Muhammad Ghori was a Perso-Afghan conqueror from the region of Ghor in Afghanistan. Before 1160, the Ghaznavid Empire covered an area running from central Afghanistan east to the Punjab, with capitals at Ghazni, a city on the banks of Ghazni river in present-day Afghanistan, and at Lahore in present-day Pakistan. In 1160, the Ghorids conquered Ghazni from the Ghaznevids, and in 1173 Muhammad was made governor of Ghazni. He raided eastwards into the remaining Ghaznevid territory, and invaded Gujarat in the 1180s, but was rebuffed by Gujarat's Solanki rulers. In 1186-7 he conquered Lahore, ending the Ghaznevid empire and bringing the last of Ghaznevid territory under his control.

In 1191, he invaded the territory of Prithviraj III, who ruled much of present-day Rajasthan, Haryana, and Punjab, but was defeated at Tarain, near Bhatinda, by Govinda-raja of Delhi, Prithviraj's vassal. The following year Muhammad Ghori assembled 120,000 horsemen and once again invaded the Kingdom of Ajmer. Muhammad's army met Prithviraj's army again at Tarain, and this time Muhammad was victorious; Govinda-raja was slain, Prithviraj captured and subsequently executed, and Muhammad advanced on Delhi, capturing it soon after. Within a year Muhammad controlled northern Rajasthan and the northern part of the Ganges-Yamuna Doab. Muhammad returned east to Ghazni to deal with the threat to his eastern frontiers from the Turks and Mongols, but his armies, mostly under Turkish generals, continued to advance through northern India, raiding as far east as Bengal. (Redundant? Probably covered in History of India.)

Muhammad returned to Lahore after 1200 to deal with a revolt of the Rajput Ghakkar tribe in the Punjab. He suppressed the revolt, but was killed during a Ghakkar raid on his camp on the Jhelum River in 1206. Upon his death, his most capable general, Qutb-ud-din Aybak took control of Muhammad Ghori's Indian conquests and declared himself the first Sultan of Delhi.

Delhi Sultanate

Main article: Delhi Sultanate

"Indo-Muslim" fusion: Muslim chattri (dome) surmounted by Hindu kalasas or finials, near Sayyid Ali Shah Shirazi's Tomb, Thatta, Sindh (now Pakistan). Photo: Henry Cousens, 1896.

Muhammad's successors established the first dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate, while the Mamluk Dynasty (mamluk means "slave" and referred to the Turkic slave soldiers who became rulers throughout the Islamic world) in 1211 (however, the Delhi Sultanate is traditionally held to have been founded in 1206) seized the reins of empire. The territory under control of the Muslim rulers in Delhi expanded rapidly. By mid-century, Bengal and much of central India was under the Delhi Sultanate. Several Turko-Afghan dynasties ruled from Delhi: the Mamluk (1211-90), the Khalji (1290-1320), the Tughlaq (1320-1413), the Sayyid (1414-51), and the Lodhi (1451-1526). As Muslims extended their rule into southern India, only the Hindu kingdom of Vijayanagar remained immune, until it too fell in 1565. Although some kingdoms remained independent of Delhi in the Deccan and in Gujarat, Malwa (central India), and Bengal, almost all of the area in Pakistan came under the rule of the Delhi Sultanate.

The sultans of Delhi enjoyed cordial relations with Muslim rulers in the Near East but owed them no allegiance. The sultans based their laws on the Quran and the sharia and permitted non-Muslim subjects to practice their religion only if they paid the jizya or head tax. The sultans ruled from urban centers--while military camps and trading posts provided the nuclei for towns that sprang up in the countryside. Perhaps the greatest contribution of the sultanate was its temporary success in insulating the South Asia from the potential devastation of the Mongol invasion from Central Asia in the thirteenth century, which nonetheless led to the loss of Afghanistan and western Pakistan to the Mongols (see the Ilkhanate Dynasty). The sultanate ushered in a period of Indian cultural renaissance resulting from the stimulation of Islam by Hinduism. The resulting "Indo-Muslim" fusion left lasting monuments in architecture, music, literature, and religion. In addition it is surmised that the language of Urdu (literally meaning "horde" or "camp" in various Turkic dialects) was born during the Delhi Sultanate period as a result of the mingling of Sanskritic prakrits and the Persian, Turkish, Arabic favored by the Muslim invaders of India. The sultanate suffered from the sacking of Delhi in 1398 by Timur (Tamerlane) but revived briefly under the Lodhis before it was conquered by the Mughals in 1526.

The Early Modern Period

During the start of the 16th to the 19th century CE saw the arrivals of the Mughal empire, which played a huge role in the development of the region not only economically but also culturally.

The Mughal Empire

Main articles: Mughal Empire and Babur

'The Jumma Musjeed in Thatta, Scinde: commenced by Sha Jahan, & finished by Urungjebe. 'Water-colour, 'T. Wingate. Queen's Royal Regt. 1839'

The fort at Lahore, Photo: Samuel Bourne, 1860s. Mughal emperor Akbar built the fort; Alamgiri gateway (background) was built by Aurangzeb.

The arrival of people from the Central Asian nations such as the Turks and Mongols was a significant turning point in the history of South Asia. The Qalandars (wandering Sufi saints) from Central Asia, Persia and Middle East are said to have preached a mystical form of Islam that appealed to certain sections of Buddhist and Hindu populations of Pakistan. However the role played by the Sufis is controversial and there is certainly no unanimity on their supposedly peaceful role in conversion of people to Islam. It may be possible that some concepts of equality, justice, spiritualness, and secularism of the Sufi strain of Islam may attracted sections of the masses towards it. The Sufi orders or triqas were established gradually, over a period of centuries. Present-day Pakistan was a place of great cultural and religious diversity. The Muslim technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, teachers, theologians and sufis flocked from the rest of the Muslim world to Islamic Sultanate in South Asia. The Muslim Sufi missionaries played a controversial yet effective role in converting thousands if not millions of native people to Islam. These Sufis invariably acted at the behest of the ruling Sultans. So the element of coercion and forcible conversion should not be ignored.

The Mughals were the descendants of Persianized Central Asian Turks (with significant Mongol admixture) and would establish a formidable empire over the breadth of South Asia and beyond. The Mughal Empire included modern Pakistan and reached as far north as eastern Afghanistan and as far south as southern India. It was one of the three major Islamic empires of its day and sometimes contested its northwestern holdings such as Qandahar against invasions from the Uzbeks and the Safavid Persians. Although the first Mughal emperor Babur favored the cool hills of Kabul, his conquests would lay the foundations for a dynasty that would hold sway over South Asia for over two centuries. Most of his successors were capable rulers and during the Mughal period the Shalimar Gardens were built in Lahore (during the reign of Shah Jehan and the Badshahi Mosque was erected during the reign of Aurangzeb. However, Aurangzeb was a controversial emperor, who was accused for his persecution of those that refused to convert to Islam. Dangerous criminals were at times set free because they were Muslims. One notable emperor, Akbar the Great was both a capable ruler and an early proponent of religious and ethnic tolerance and favored an early form of multiculturalism.

India, and Pakistan still bear the architectural monuments built by the Mughal emperors. During the Mughal period, the cities of Agra, Delhi, and Lahore were at times the capital of the empire. Humayun's Tomb, the Red Fort, and the Taj Mahal are just some of the architectural marvels, which were the results of the growth of Islamic culture and rule over the South Asia.The Mughals also implemented federal regulations including taxation, social welfare reforms, justice, development of the transport and agricultural system and water canals. The mansabdar system gained prominence during the Mughal Empire and was used to implement a form of ranking military official and landowners throughout the empire.

Durrani Empire

Main articles: Durrani Empire and Nadir Shah

Kandahar, the fourth city, built by Ahmad Shah Durrani as his capital, with his tomb (background left). Lithograph, James Rattray, 1848

In 1739 Nadir Shah attacked India and after defeating the Mughal Emperor Mohammed Shah claimed Punjab, the North-West Frontier Province, Balochistan and Sind as provinces of his empire. Upon the death of Nadir Shah, one of his generals, a Pashtun named Ahmed Shah Abdali (also Ahmad Shah Durrani) established the kingdom of Afghanistan in 1747 and claimed Kashmir, Peshawar, Daman, Multan, Sindh and Punjab for his new state.

When the Abdali kingdom weakened early in the 19th century due to internecine warfare, an independent kingdom arose in western Punjab headed by the Sikh leader Ranjit Singh. (The British, who had established their control over Delhi in 1803, warned Ranjit Singh not to attempt to impose his authority on the Sikh chieftains of East Punjab, beyond the Sutlej river.) In the south, the province of Sind, had begun to assert its independence from the waning days of Mughal emperor Aurengzeb's rule, and a succession of semi-independent dynasties under the Daudpotas, Kalhoras and Talpurs was to rule over this province until the British conquest in 1843 AD. Meanwhile, most of Balochistan came under the sphere of influence of the Khan of Kalat, except for a few coastal cities such as Gwadar which were controlled by the Sultan of Oman.

The Punjab

Main articles: Sikh Empire and Ranjit Singh

Samadh or tomb of Ranjit Singh (on right), Lahore, Photo: John Edward Saché. 1870.

In the early 19th century, the Mughal empire and the Afghan Durrani empire was weakened in power in Punjab due to continuous battles with Sikhs. After long series of battles, Sikhs conquered most of the Punjab, and parts of Kashmir and Eastern Afghanistan. Sikh warrior Ranjit Singh defeated the Afghans and took the title of Maharaja (High King) of the Punjab and eventually sovereign of the Sikh Empire, stretching from within the shadows of Delhi to beyond Peshawar, with his capital at Lahore. It was also the last territory of South Asia to fall to the British Empire mainly due to the betrayal by its top Dogra Generals, during the two bloody Anglo-Sikh wars in 1845-6 and 1848-49. The outcome was a very narrow victory for the British resulting in the annexation of the Punjab and the fall of Sikh rule.

Colonial era

Main article: Anglo-Sikh wars

During the middle of the second millennium, several European countries, such as Great Britain, Portugal, Holland and France were initially interested in trade with South Asian rulers including the Mughals and leaders of other independent Kingdoms. The Europeans took advantage of the fractured kingdoms and the divided rule to colonize the country. Most of India came under the crown of the British Empire in 1857 after a failed insurrection, popularly known as the First War of Indian Independence, against the British East India Company by Bahadur Shah Zafar. Present-day Pakistan remained part of British India until August 14, 1947.

Maps of the Region 1765-1909

All but one maps in this section are taken from the Imperial Gazetteer of India, published by Oxford University Press in 1909. The colors marked "Muhammadan" (i.e. "Muslim") and "Hindu" in the maps of 1765, 1805, 1837, and 1857, indicate kingdoms whose rulers (and not necessarily the majority of their populations) practised those faiths.

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  1765. Map of the region and environs of present-day Pakistan 1765, during the reign of Ahmad Shah Durrani.
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  1793. Map of the region and environs of present-day Pakistan 1793, at the beginning of the reign of Zaman Shah Durrani.
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  1805. Map of the region and environs of present-day Pakistan 1805, after more expansion of the Sikh Kingdom in Punjab.
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  1837. Map of the region and environs of present-day Pakistan in 1837, during the height of Ranjit Singh's reign in Punjab.

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  1857. Map of the region and environs of present-day Pakistan in 1857, just before the onset of direct rule by Great Britain.
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  1909. Map of the region and environs of present-day Pakistan in 1909, as a part of the British Indian Empire.
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  1909 Prevailing Religions, Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the prevailing majority religions of the population for different districts.
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  1909 Percentage of Muslims, Map of British of Indian Empire, 1909, showing percentage of Muslims in different districts.

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  1909 Percentage of Hindus, Map of British of Indian Empire, 1909, showing percentage of Hindus in different districts.
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  1909 Percentage of Buddhists, Sikhs, and Jains. Map of British of Indian Empire, 1909, showing percentages in different districts.
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  1909 Prevailing Languages (Northern Region), Map of British Indian Empire, 1909, showing the prevailing (Aryan) languages of the population for different districts.
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  1909 Population Density, Map of British of Indian Empire, 1909, showing the population density.

The Anglo-Afghan wars and the Great Game

Main articles: Anglo-Afghan wars and History of Balochistan

Afghan chiefs and a British Political Officer pose at Jamrud fort, Khyber Pass, 2nd Anglo-Afghan War. Photo: John Burke, 1878.

Political cartoon depicting the Afghan Amir Sher Ali with his "friends" Britain & Russia (1878)

The two Anglo-Afghan wars that involved Pakistan directly took place in 1839 and again in 1842 and 1878 and resulted in the eventual loss of Pashtun/Afghan territory to the expanding British Indian empire. Following the 2nd Anglo-Afghan war, a tenuous peace resulted between Afghanistan and the British empire based in India. Decades later, what is today western Pakistan would come to be annexed by the British.

For Afghan ruler Abdur Rahman Khan, delineating the boundary with India (through the Pashtun area) was far more significant, and it was during his reign that the Durand Line was drawn. Under pressure, Abdur Rahman agreed in 1893 to accept a mission headed by the British Indian foreign secretary, Sir Mortimer Durand, to define the limits of British and Afghan control in the Pashtun territories. Boundary limits were agreed on by Durand and Abdur Rahman before the end of 1893, but there is some question about the degree to which Abdur Rahman willingly ceded certain regions. There were indications that he regarded the Durand Line as a delimitation of separate areas of political responsibility, not a permanent international frontier, and that he did not explicitly cede control over certain parts (such as Kurram and Chitral) that were already in British control under the Treaty of Gandamak.

The Durand Line cut through both tribes and villages and bore little relation to the realities of topography, demography, or even military strategy. The line laid the foundation, not for peace between the border regions, but for heated disagreement between the governments of Afghanistan and British India, and later, Afghanistan and Pakistan. The issue revolves around the Pashtun nationalist movement known as Pashtunistan.

During much of the 19th century, the British and Russian Empires engaged in what came to be known as the Great Game as both sides intrigued over Afghanistan and western Pakistan. Often arming local Pashtun and Tajik tribesmen, both sides sought to undermine the other, while the rulers of Afghanistan were able to maintain some measure of independence in-spite of the loss of territories to the east to British India.

The British Raj

Photograph of the Bolan Pass, Baluchistan, (now Pakistan) after the construction of the railway. Macnabb Collection, 1880s.

Main articles: British Raj and All-India Muslim League

The first proponents of an independent Muslim nation began to appear in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century under the British Raj. Following the first War for Independence, the Indian National Congress was founded in 1885. Some Muslims felt the need to address the issue of the Muslim identity within India, leading to Sir Syed Amir Ali forming the Central National Muhammadan Association in 1877 to work towards the political advancement of the Muslims. The organisation declined towards the end of the nineteenth century but was replaced in 1906 by the All-India Muslim League. Although the League originally demanded constitutional guarantees for Muslims, several factors including sectarian violence prompted a reconsideration of the League's aims. The All India Muslim League was founded on the sidelines of the 1905 conference of the Muslim Anglo-Oriental Conference. This party was not, right until 1940, separatist. The idea of a separate nation was mooted in humor, satire and on the fringes of the political milieu.

Pakistan movement

Main articles: Pakistan Movement and Lahore Resolution

By 1930, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, who ultimately led the movement for a separate state, had despaired of Indian politics and particularly of getting mainstream parties like the Congress (of which he was a member much longer than the League) to be sensitive to minority priorities. Among the first to make the demand for a separate state was the writer/philosopher Allama Iqbal, who, in his presidential address to the 1930 convention of the Muslim League said that he felt that a separate nation for Muslims was essential in an otherwise Hindu-dominated South Asia.

The name was coined by Cambridge student and Muslim nationalist Choudhary Rahmat Ali. He devised the word and first published it on January 28, 1933 in the pamphlet Now or Never. He saw it as an acronym formed from the names of the "homelands" of Muslims in South Asia. (P for Punjab, A for the Afghan areas of the region, K for Kashmir, S for Sindh and tan for Balochistan, thus forming 'Pakstan.' An i was later added to the English rendition of the name to ease pronunciation, producing Pakistan.) The word also captured in the Persian language the concepts of "pak", meaning "pure", and "stan", meaning "land" or "home", thus giving it the meaning "Land of the Pure". Arabic-speaking countries refer to Pakistan as Bakistan (باکستان), as the Arabic language lacks the phoneme [p].

In 1935, the Sindh Assembly passed a resolution demanding the establishment of a Muslim homeland. Iqbal, Jauhar and others then worked hard to draft Mohammad Ali Jinnah to lead the movement for this new nation. Jinnah later went on to become known as the Father of the Nation, with Pakistan officially giving him the title Quaid-e-Azam or "Great Leader". In 1940, Jinnah called a general session of the All India Muslim League in Lahore to discuss the situation that had arisen due to the outbreak of the Second World War and the Government of India joining the war without taking the opinion of the Indian leaders. The meeting was also aimed at analyzing the reasons that led to the defeat of the Muslim League in the general election of 1937 in the Muslim majority provinces. Jinnah, in his speech, criticised the Congress and the nationalist Muslims, and espoused the Two-Nation Theory and the reasons for the demand for separate Muslim homelands. Sikandar Hayat Khan, the Chief Minister of the Punjab region, drafted the original Lahore Resolution, which was placed before the Subject Committee of the All India Muslim League for discussion and amendments. The resolution, radically amended by the subject committee, was moved in the general session by Shere-Bangla A. K. Fazlul Huq, the Chief Minister of Bengal, on 23 March, supported by Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman and other Muslim leaders and was adopted on 23 March, 1940. The Resolution read as follows:

That the areas where the Muslims are numerically in a majority as in the Northwestern and Eastern zones of India should be grouped to constitute 'independent states' in which the constituent units shall be autonomous and sovereign.

Independence

Processions in Dhaka in support of the Bengali Language Movement, February 21, 1952

Main article: Partition of India

On the 14th and 15th of August, 1947, British India was partitioned into the new independent Dominions of Pakistan and India respectively, with both dominions joining the British Commonwealth. Partition left Punjab and Bengal, two of the biggest provinces, divided between India and Pakistan. In the early days of independence, more than two million people migrated across the new border and more than one hundred thousand died in a spate of communal violence. Non-Muslims who lived in Pakistan were forced the leave the area, which was one major factor in causing a violent reaction amongst the populations of the newly founded nations. The partition also resulted in tensions over Kashmir leading to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. The post-independence political history of Pakistan has been characterised several periods of authoritarian military government alternating with democratic civilian/parliamentary rule. Since independence, Pakistan has also been in constant dispute with India over the territory of Kashmir which has led to complicated relations. In addition, Pakistan has been at odds with Afghanistan over the Pashtunistan issue for much of its history as well.

In 1948, Jinnah declared in Dhaka that Urdu and only Urdu shall be the state language of Pakistan. This sparked protests in East Bengal (later East Pakistan), where Bengali was spoken by most of the population. The Bengali Language Movement reached its peak in 1952. On February 21, 1952, Pakistan Police and Army fired on students protesting for equal status of Bengali, near the Dhaka Medical College. Several protesters were killed, and the movement gained further support throughout the East Pakistan. Later, the Government agreed to provide equal status to Bengali as the state language of Pakistan, a right later codified in the 1956 constitution.

Islamic Republic of Pakistan

In 1953 at the instigation of religious parties, anti-Ahmadiyya riots erupted, killing scores of Ahmadi Muslims and destroying their properties. Details on the causes of riots are available in the Justice Munir report on the riots. This event led to the first instance of martial law in the country and began the inroad of military intervention in the affairs of the country, something that remains to this day.

The Dominion was dissolved on 23 March, 1956 and replaced by the Islamic Republic of Pakistan with the last Governor-General, Iskandar Mirza, as the first president. Just two years later the military took control of the nation. Field Marshall Ayub Khan became president and began a new system of government called Basic Democracy by which an elctoral college of 80,000 would select the President. He nearly lost the national elections to Fatima Jinnah. During Ayub's rule, relations with the United States and the West grew stronger. A formal alliance including Pakistan, Iran, Iraq, and Turkey was formed during the Ayub Khan period and was called the Baghdad Pact (later known as CENTO), which was to defend the Middle East and Persian Gulf from Soviet designs. However, the United States adopted a policy denying military aid when Pakistan engaged in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 with India over Kashmir and the Rann of Kutch.

Civil war and the separation of Bangladesh

Main article: Bangladesh Liberation War

Between 1947 and 1971, Pakistan consisted of two disconnected regions, West Pakistan and East Pakistan, geographically separated by India in between. During the 1960s, there was a rise in Bengali nationalism, and of allegations that economic development and hiring for government jobs favoured West Pakistan. An independence movement in East Pakistan began to gather ground. After a nationwide uprising in 1969, General Ayub Khan stepped down from office, handing over power to General Yahya Khan, who promised to hold general elections at the end of 1970. On the eve of the elections, a cyclone struck East Pakistan killing approximately 500,000 people. Despite the tragedy and the additional difficulty experienced by affected citizens in reaching the voting sites, the elections were held, and the results showed a clear division between the East and the West Pakistan. The Awami League, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a majority in the National Assembly, with 167 of the 169 East Pakistani seats, but with no seats from West Pakistan, where the Pakistan Peoples Party led by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, won 85 seats. Yahya Khan and Bhutto refused to hand over power to Mujib.

Meanwhile, Mujib initiated a civil disobedience movement, which was strongly supported by the general population of East Pakistan, including most government workers. A round-table conference between Yahya, Bhutto, and Mujib was convened in Dhaka, which, however, ended without a solution. Soon thereafter, the West Pakistani Army commenced Operation Searchlight, an organized crackdown on the East Pakistani army, police, politicians, civilians, and students in Dhaka. Mujib and many other Awami League leaders were arrested, while others fled to neighbouring India. On March 27, 1971, Major Ziaur Rahman, a Bengali war-veteran of the East Bengal Regiment of the Pakistan Army, declared the independence of East Pakistan as the new nation of Bangladesh on behalf of Mujib. The crackdown widened and escalated into a guerrilla warfare between the Pakistani Army and the Mukti Bahini-Bengali "freedom fighters". Although the killing of Bengalis was unsupported by the people of West Pakistan, it continued for 9 months. India supplied the Bengali rebels with arms and training, and, in addition, hosted more than 10 million Bengali refugees who had fled the turmoil.

In March, 1971, India's Prime Minister, Indira Gandhi expressed sympathy for the East Pakistani independence movement, opening India's borders to refugees and providing other assistance. Following a period of covert and overt intervention by Indian forces, open hostilities broke out between the two countries on December 3, 1971. In East Pakistan, the Pakistani Army led by General A. A. K. Niazi, had already been weakened and exhausted by the Mukti Bahini's guerrila warfare. Outflanked and overwhelmed, the Pakistani army in the eastern theatre surrendered on December 16, 1971, with nearly 90,000 soldiers taken as prisoners of war. The official figure of the Bengali civilian death toll from the war was reported to be 3 million, although other sources put the number between 1.25 to 1.5 million. The result was the emergence of the new nation of Bangladesh. Discredited by the defeat, Pakistan's President, Gen Yahya Khan, resigned. Z.A Bhutto was inaugurated as president and chief martial law administrator on 20 December, 1971.

1973 Constitution

Civilian rule returned after the war, when Gen Yahya Khan handed over power to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto. In 1972, Pakistani intelligence learned that India was close to developing a nuclear bomb, and in response, Bhutto formed a group of engineers and scientists, headed by nuclear scientist Abdus Salam — who later won the Nobel Prize in Physics — to develop nuclear devices. In 1973, Parliament approved the 1973 Constitution of Pakistan. Pakistan was alarmed by the Indian nuclear test of 1974, and Bhutto promised that Pakistan would also have a nuclear device "even if we have to eat grass and leaves." (Needless to say, if any Pakistanis ate grass and leaves, it was not the generals.) During Bhutto's rule, a serious rebellion also took place in Balochistan and led to harsh suppression of Baloch rebels with purported assistance from the Shah of Iran lending air support in order to avoid a spilling over the conflict into Sistan Balochistan in Iran. (The escalating conflict would later end after an amnesty and subsequent stabilization by provincial military ruler Rahimuddin Khan.) In 1974, Bhutto succumbed to increasing pressure from religious parties and helped the constituent assembley to declare the Ahmadiyya adherents as non-muslims. Elections were held in 1977, with Bhutto winning. Bhutto's victory was challenged by the opposition, which accused him of rigging the vote. General Muhammad Zia-ul-Haq took power in a bloodless coup, Bhutto was later executed, after being convicted of authorizing the murder of a political opponent, in a controversial 4-3 split decision by Pakistan's Supreme Court.

General Zia

Main articles: Baghdad Pact, Zia-ul-Haq's Islamization, and Baloch Insurgency and Rahimuddin's Stabilization

Pakistan had been a US ally for much of the Cold War, from the 1950s and as a member of CENTO and SEATO. The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan renewed and deepened the US-Pakistan alliance. The Reagan administration in the United States helped supply and finance an anti-Soviet insurgency in Afghanistan, using Pakistan as a conduit. In retaliation, the KHAD, under Afghan leader Mohammad Najibullah, carried out (according to the Mitrokhin archives and other sources) a large number of terrorist operations against Pakistan, which also suffered from an influx of weaponry and drugs from Afghanistan. In the 1980s, as the front-line state in the anti-Soviet struggle, Pakistan received substantial aid from the United States and took in millions of Afghan (mostly Pashtun) refugees fleeing the Soviet occupation. The influx of so many refugees - the largest refugee population in the world - had a heavy impact on Pakistan and its effects continue to this day.

Also under the new military ruler President Zia-ul-Haq's Martial Law dictatorship the following initiatives were taken:

• Strict Islamic law was introduced into the country's legal system by 1978, contributing to current-day sectarianism and religious fundamentalism, as well as instilling a sense of religious purpose within the youth. Anti-Ahmadi ordinance XX was introduced to limit the freedom of the sect in Pakistan.
• Pakistan fought a war by proxy against the Communists in Afghanistan in the Soviet-Afghan War, greatly contributing to the eventual withdrawal of Soviet forces from Afghanistan.
• Secessionist uprisings in Balochistan were put down by the province's authoritarian Martial Law ruler, General Rahimuddin Khan, who, due to Martial Law, ruled for an unprecedented seven years.
• The socialist economic policies of the previous civilian government, which also included aggressive nationalisation, were gradually reversed; and Pakistan's Gross National Product greatly rose to among the highest in the world.

General Zia lifted Martial Law in 1985, holding partyless elections and handpicking Muhammad Khan Junejo to be the Prime Minister of Pakistan, who rubber-stamped Zia's being Chief of Army Staff till 1990. Junejo however gradually fell out with Zia as his politically administrative independence grew. Junejo also signed the Geneva Accord, which Zia greatly frowned upon. After a large-scale blast at a munitions dump in Ojhri, Junejo vowed to bring those responsible for the significant damage caused to justice, implicating several senior generals.

President Zia, infuriated, dismissed the Junejo government on several charges in May 1988. He then called for the holding of fresh elections in November. General Zia-ul-Haq never saw the elections materialize however, as he died in a plane crash on August 17 1988, which was later proven to be highly sophisticated sabotage, but nobody was ever brought to trial.

Civilian democracy

Benazir Bhutto at a Pakistan Peoples Party event in Newark, CA, 28 September 2004.

From 1988 to 1999, Pakistan was ruled by civilian governments, alternately headed by Benazir Bhutto and Nawaz Sharif, who were each elected twice and removed from office on charges of corruption. Economic growth declined towards the end of this period, hurt by the Asian financial crisis, and economic sanctions imposed on Pakistan after its first tests of nuclear devices in 1998. The Pakistani testing came shortly after India tested nuclear devices and increased fears of a nuclear arms race in South Asia. The next year, the Kargil Conflict in Kashmir threatened to escalate to a full-scale war. During the late 1990s, Pakistan was one of three countries which recognized the Taliban government and Mullah Mohammed Omar as the legitimate ruler of Afghanistan. Allegations have been made of Pakistan and other countries providing economic and military aid to the group from 1994 as a part of supporting the anti-Soviet alliance. It is alleged that some post-invasion Taliban fighters were recruits drawn from Pakistan's madrassahs.

In the election that returned Nawaz Sharif as Prime Minister in 1997, his party received a heavy majority of the vote, obtaining enough seats in parliament to change the constitution, which Sharif amended to eliminate the formal checks and balances that restrained the Prime Minister's power. Institutional challenges to his authority, led by the civilian President Farooq Leghari, military chief Jehangir Karamat and Chief Justice Sajjad Ali Shah were put down and all three were forced to resign, Shah doing so after the Supreme Court was stormed by Sharif partisans.

1999 coup

Main article: 1999 Pakistani coup d'état

On 12 October, 1999, Sharif attempted to dismiss army chief Pervez Musharraf and install ISI director Khwaja Ziauddin in his place. Musharraf, who was out of the country, boarded a commercial airliner to return to Pakistan. Senior Army generals refused to accept Musharraf's dismissal. Nawaz Sharif ordered the Jinnah International Airport (Quaid-e-Azam International Airport) to prevent the landing of the airliner, which then circled the skies over Karachi. In a coup, the generals ousted Sharif's administration and took over the airport. The plane landed with only a few minutes of fuel to spare, and General Pervez Musharraf assumed control of the government. General Musharraf arrested Nawaz Sharif and those members of his cabinet who took part in this conspiracy. President Clinton felt that his pressure to force Nawaz Sharif to withdraw Pakistani forces from Kargil in Indian-controlled Kashmir was one of the main reason for Nawaz Sharif's disagreements with the Pakistani army. President Clinton and King Fahd pressured General Musharraf to exile Nawaz Sharif to Saudi Arabia and guaranteeing he would not be involved in politics for five years. Nawaz Sharif lived in Saudi Arabia for more than six years before moving to London in 2005.

21st century

On May 12, 2000 the Supreme Court of Pakistan ordered Pervez Musharraf to hold general elections by October 12, 2002. In an attempt to legitimize his presidency and assure its continuance after the impending elections, he held a national referendum on April 30, 2002, which extended his presidential term to a period ending five years after the October elections. General Musharraf continues to hold post of the army chief.

General elections were held in October 2002 and the centrist, pro-Mushararraf PML-Q won a plurality of the seats in the Parliament. However, parties opposed to Musharraf's Legal Framework Order effectively paralyzed the National Assembly for over a year. The deadlock ended in December 2003, when Musharraf and some of his parliamentary opponents agreed upon a compromise, and pro-Musharraf legislators were able to muster the two-thirds supermajority required to pass the Seventeenth Amendment, which retroactively legitimized Musharraf's 1999 coup and many of his subsequent decrees. In a vote of confidence on January 1 2004, Musharraf won 658 out of 1,170 votes in the Electoral College of Pakistan, and according to Article 41(8) of the Constitution of Pakistan, was elected to the office of President.

While economic reforms undertaken during his regime have yielded some results, social reform programmes appear to have met with resistance. Musharraf's power is threatened by extremists who have grown in strength since the September 11, 2001 attacks and who are particularly angered by Musharraf's close political and military alliance with the United States, including his support of the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan, and his liberal views on reforming Islam. Musharraf has survived assassination attempts by terrorist groups believed to be part of Al-Qaeda, including at least two instances where the terrorists had inside information from a member of his military security detail. Pakistan continues to be involved in a dispute over Kashmir, with allegations of support of terrorist groups being leveled against Pakistan by India, while Pakistan charges that the Indian government abuses human rights in its use of military force in the region. That both India and Pakistan possess nuclear weapons makes this dispute a source of special concern for the world community. This led to a nuclear standoff in 2002 when militants (supposedly backed by the ISI) attacked the Indian parliament. In reaction to this and following diplomatic tensions, India and Pakistan deployed 500,000 and 120,000 troops to the border respectively. While the Indo-Pakistani peace process has since made progress, it is sometimes stalled by infrequent insurgent activity in India (including the 11 July 2006 Mumbai train bombings). Pakistan also has been accused of contributing to nuclear proliferation; indeed, its leading nuclear scientist, Abdul Qadeer Khan, admitted to selling nuclear secrets, though he denies any governmental knowledge of his activities.

The Pakistani government sent thousands of troops into the region of Waziristan in 2002 to hunt for bin Laden and other al-Qaeda fugitives. In March 2004, heavy fighting broke out at Azam Warsak, near the South Waziristan town of Wana, between Pakistani troops and an estimated 400 militants holed up in several fortified settlements. It was speculated that bin Laden's deputy Ayman al-Zawahiri was among those trapped by the Pakistani Army. On September 5 2006 a truce was signed with the militants (who call themselves the Islamic Emirate of Waziristan) in which the rebels were to cease supporting cross-border jihadist attacks on Afghanistan in return for a general ceasefire and a hand-over of border patrol and check-point responsibilities formerly handled by the Pakistan Army.

On November 3, 2007, General Musharraf proclaimed a state of emergency and sacked the Chief Justice of Pakistan, Justice Iftikhar Muhammad Choudhry along with other 14 judges of the Supreme Court. Lawyers launched a protest against this action but they were arrested. All private media channels were banned including foreign channels.

Additional references

• Ahmed, Akbar S. 'Millennium and Charisma Among Pathans' (New York: Routledge, 1980).
• Allchin, Bridget and Raymond Allchin. 'The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982).
• Baluch, Muhammad Sardar Khan. 'History of the Baluch Race and Baluchistan' (Stuttgart, Germany: Steiner Verlag, 1987).
• Banuazizi, Ali and Myron Weiner (eds.). 'The Politics of Social Transformation in Afghanistan, Iran, and Pakistan' (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1994).
• Bhutto, Benazir. 'Daughter of the East' (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1988).
• Bosworth, Clifford E. 'Ghaznavids' (South Asia Books, 1992).
• Bryant, Edwin. 'The Quest for the Origins of Vedic Culture: The Indo-Aryan Migration Debate' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003).
• Cohen, Stephen P. 'The Idea of Pakistan' (Washington D.C.: Brookings Institute Press, 2004).
• Dupree, Louis. 'Afghanistan' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).
• Elphinstone, Mountstuart. 'An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul and its Dependencies in Persia, Tartary, and India' (London 1815, New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers, 1998).
• Elliot, Sir H. M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List)
• Esposito, John L. 'The Oxford History of Islam' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
• Gasciogne, Bamber and Christina Gasciogne. 'A Brief History of the Great Moguls' (Carroll and Graf Publishers, 2000).
• Gauhar, Altaf. 'Ayub Khan: Pakistan's First Military Ruler' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
• Hardy, Peter. 'The Muslims of British India' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1972).
• Hopkirk, Peter. 'The Great Game: The Struggle for Empire in Central Asia' (New York: Kodansha International, 1990).
• Iqbal, Muhammad. 'The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam' (Kazi Publications, 1999).
• Jaffrelot, Christophe. 'A History of Pakistan and Its Origins' (London: Anthem Press, 2002).
• Kenover, Jonathan Mark. 'Ancient Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1998).
• Mallory, J.P. 'In Search of the Indo-Europeans' (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1989).
• Moorhouse, Geoffrey. 'To the Frontier: A journey to the Khyber Pass' (New York: Henry Holt Company, 1984).
• Olmstead, A.T. 'History of the Persian Empire: Achaemenid period' (Chicago: Chicago University Press, 1948).
• Reat, Ross. 'Buddhism: A History', (Jain Publishing Company, 1996).
• Sidkey, H. 'The Greek Kingdom of Bactria' (Ohio: University Press of America, 2000).
• Smith, Vincent. 'The Oxford History of India' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1981).
• Tarn, W.W. 'Greeks in Bactria and India', (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980).
• Thackston, Wheeler M. 'The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996).
• Thapar, Romila. 'A History of India : Volume 1' (New York: Penguin Books, 1990).
• Welch, Stuart Cary. 'Imperial Mughal Painting' (New York: George Braziller, 1978).
• Wheeler, R.E.M. 'Five Thousand Years of Pakistan'. (London: Royal India and Pakistan Society, 1950).
• Wheeler, R.E.M. 'Early India and Pakistan: To Ashoka, v. 12' (London: Praeger, 1968).
• Wolpert, Stanley. 'Jinnah of Pakistan' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1984).
• Ziring, Lawrence. 'Pakistan in the Twentieth Century: A Political History' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997).

See also

• Historical regions of Pakistan
• A Short History of Pakistan
• List of British Indian Princely States
• Places in Pakistan with Hindu and Sikh Populations before 1947
• The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period (Book)
• Hindu and Buddhist heritage of Pakistan
• Waziristan War
• Waziristan accord

External links

• History of Pakistan Archived 2017-11-05 at the Wayback Machine
• Story of Pakistan
• Pakistan on Encarta Archived 2007-10-28 at the Wayback Machine
• Coins and Antiquities of Pakistan- from the Waleed Ziad Collection
• Justice Munir Enquiry Report on Anti-Ahmadiyya riots of 1953 (Urdu)
• Justice Munir Enquiry Report on Anti-Ahmadiyya riots of 1953 (English)
• Online Copy: The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; by Sir H. M. Elliot; Edited by John Dowson; London Trubner Company 1867–1877 - This online Copy has been posted by: The Packard Humanities Institute; Persian Texts in Translation; Also find other historical books: Author List and Title List