User:Benwing/Romance phonology


/x,y/ = x or y unpredictably /x/; /y/ = x or y, in different contexts


+ strong position (next to consonant or word boundary) +! strong position after loss of unstressed vowel
- weak position (next to vowel)
# word boundary #! word boundary after loss of unstressed vowel
é stressed vowel è unstressed vowel
high-mid vowel (/e/ or /o/) ę low-mid vowel (/ɛ/ or /ɔ/)
V any vowel nasal vowel
V* some vowels modified somewhat V** vowels are drastically modified
Vj vowel is modified by monophthongization of a former /Vj/ sequence (typically /aj/ > /e/ or /aj/ > /ɛ/; other results language-specific)
Vꜛ some vowels modified somewhat, generally by raising Vꜜ some vowels modified somewhat, generally by lowering
/x/, /y/ either /x/ or /y/, unpredictably
/x/; /y/ /x/ or /y/ predictably, in different contexts (often indicated)
/x/~/y/ /x/ or /y/ in different dialects
/x/ - /y/ when multiple source forms listed in a single row (e.g. pl-, cl-, fl-); then /x/ for the first form, /y/ for the second, etc.
‹x› (‹y›) usually ‹x›, occasionally ‹y›, unpredictably
‹x›;‹y› ‹x› or ‹y› predictably, in different contexts (often indicated)
s.t. sometimes occ. occasionally
sound disappears
? unknown
N/A context doesn't apply
(foo) outcome for this sound is unexpected
((foo)) outcome for this sound is unexpected because word is learned or semi-learned

Development of +(t)ty-, +(c)cy-, -cty-, -pty-

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Feature Sardinian Romanian Proto-Italo-Western Italian Proto-Western Ibero-Romance Portuguese Spanish Catalan Gallo-Romance Occitan French
-ty- (often fell in with -tty-) ? ? tts dz Old dz Old dz Old ð Old dz? Old jdz(j)
-cy- ? ? ttʃ ttʃ ttś ts Old ts Old dz Old ts? ttś Old ts? Old ts(j)
+ty- ? ? ts ts Old ts Old ts Old ts? Old ts? Old ts(j)
+cy- ? ? ts Old ts Old ts Old ts? Old ts? Old ts(j)
-c(e,i)- ? ? tś > dź dz Old dz Old dz Old ð Old dz? Old jdz(j)
+d'c(e,i)- ? ? d.tʃ d.tʃ ddź ddz Old dz Old dz Old ddz ddź ? Old dz(j)
-sc(e,i)- ? ? śtʃ ʃʃ śtś śtś Old ts,jʃ Old ts Old jʃ ś ? Old js(j)
-sy- ? ? ś ź jz Old jz Old jz Old jz ź ? Old jz(j)
-ssy-, -scy-, -sty- ? ? śś ʃʃ ś ʃ Old jʃ (late j) Old ʃ Old jʃ (late j) ś ? Old js(j)
-ct- ? ? xt tt jt́ jt́ Old jt Old tʃ Old jt? jt́ tʃ ~ jt Old jt(j)
-x- ? ? xs ss Old jʃ Old jʃ Old jʃ ? Old js(j)
g(e,i)-, j-, dy-, gy- ? ? j j j Old dž Old dž(+o,u); j(+á,é,í); ∅(+V̀) Old dž j dž ~ (Gasc.) j Old dž(j)
-j-, -dy-, -gy- ? ? j ddž; ddž,ddź < -dy- j j Old j,dž Old j; (e,i+)∅ Old dž?? j ? Old: j(+V̀); j(+á,ɛ́,é,í,ɔ́); dž(+ó,ú)

-(a,e,i)g(é,í)- > ∅:

  • -agé-, -egí-, ?-agí- > ∅ (but sigillum > *seǵello > Cat. segell, It. suggello; Pt. sêlo; Sp. sello; Fr. sceau)
  • veǵenti > It venti; > PWR *veínte > Sp. veinte, Fr. vingt, Pt. vinte, Cat. vint
  • digitum > Fr. doigt, It. dito, Sp. dedo, Pt. dedo, Cat. dit but Rom. deget
  • vagīna > It. guaína, Fr. gaine, Sp. vaina < vaína, Pt. bainha (ba-ínha), Cat. beina
  • rēgīna > Sp. reina (OSp reína), Pt. rainha (ra-ínha), Cat. reina, Fr. reine, It. reína/regina, Rom. regină
  • frigidum > It. freddo, Fr. froid < *frejdo, Sp. frío, Pt. frio, Cat. fred, Rom. frig
  • rigidum > Fr. raide/roide, Pt. rijo
  • triginta > It. trenti, Pt. trinta, Sp. trenta, Fr. trente, Cat. trenta
  • quadraginta > It. quaranta, Fr. quarante, Sp. cuarenta (OSp quaraenta), Pt. quarenta, Cat. quaranta
  • pagēse > It. paese, Sp./Pt./Cat. país, Fr. pays
  • magistrus > It. maestro, Sp. maestro, Fr. maître, Pt. mestre, Rom. maestru
  • rēge > It. re, Sp. rey, Pt. rei, Fr. roi, Rom. rege
  • lēge > It. legge, Sp. ley, Pt. lei, Fr. loi, Rom. lege
  • sagitta > It. saetta, Sp. saeta, Pt. seta, but Rom. săgeată

Development of sibilants in the Romance languages

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Development of sibilants in the Romance languages
Vulgar Latin +S +c(e,i) +ty-
-tty-
-cty-
-pty-
+cy-
-ccy-
-s- -c(e,i) -ty- -cy- d'c(e,i) -sy- +sy-
-ssy-
-scy-
-sty-
-sc(e/i) -x- -ct- #g(e/i) #j-
#dy-
#gy-
-g(e/i) -j-
=gy-

=dy-
(a/e/i)g(É/Í) other
Proto-Romance s k tj kj s k tj kj d.k sy ? sk ks kt g j g j j,dj
Sardinian (Nuor.-Logudor.) s k Nu θ
Lo t
s k Nu θ
Lo t
Nu d.k z ? sk ss t g dz, j g j; +dz?
Proto-Continental s s ttʃ d.tʃ ś śś śtʃ ks kt j j,dź
Romanian s ts s? ts d.tʃ ʃ ʃt s pt dʒ,dz
Proto-Italo-Western s s ttʃ d.tʃ ś śś śtʃ xs xt j (a,e,i)g(é,í)
→ ∅
j j,dź
Italian s ts z tts ttʃ d.tʃ ʃʃ ss,ʃʃ tt ddʒ ddʒ,ddz
Proto-Western ttś ddź ź ś śtś jt́ j j
Old Portuguese ts dz ts dz (V*)jʒ (V*)jʃ, ts (V*)jʃ (V*)jt dʒ, j; +ts
Modern Portuguese s z s z (V*)jʒ (V*)jʃ, s (V*)jʃ (V*)jt ʒ ʒ, j; +s
Old Spanish ts dz (V*)ṣ ʃ ts (V*)ʃ dʒ(+o,u);
j(+á,é,í);
∅(+V̀)
j; (e,i+)∅;
+dz
Modern Spanish
(NorthCentral Spain)
θ θ (V*)ṣ x θ (V*)x x(+o,u);
j(+á,é,í);
∅(+V̀)
j; (e,i+)∅;
Modern Spanish
(Andalusia, America)
s (V*)s h s (V*)h h(+o,u);
j(+á,é,í);
∅(+V̀)
j; (e,i+)∅;
+s
Old Catalan ts dz ts ddz (V*)z (V*)jʃ (V*)jʃ (V*)t
Modern Catalan ∅; w+! dẓ (V*)ẓ ʃ (V*)ʃ (V*)ʃ (V*)t ʒ ʒ
Proto-Gallo-Romance ttś ddź ź ś jt́ j j
Proto-Northern-French ts(j) jdz(j) tts(j) ddz(j) jz(j) js(j) jt(j) +dʒ;
dʒ(+ó,ú);
j(else, incl. +ɔ́)
Old French ts(j) jẓ(j) ts(j) dz(j) jẓ(j) jṣ(j) jt(j)
Modern French s s(j) z (Vj)z(j) s(j) z(j) (Vj)z(j) (Vj)s(j) (Vj)t(j) ʒ

Further development of French diphthongs, triphthongs

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Further development of French diphthongs, triphthongs
Primitive French Old French Modern French Spelling
aj aj ɛ ‹ai›
(ɛj > ) jɛj i i ‹i›
ej ej(+n,m) ɛ ‹ei›
ej oj wɛ > wa,ɛ ‹oi,ai›
oj
uj yj ɥi ‹ui›
(ɔj >) wɛj (uj >) yj

Development of clusters that sometimes produce coronal palatal sounds

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Development of clusters that sometimes produce coronal palatal sounds
Vulgar Latin +c(a) +g(a) #cl- #pl- #fl- +cl- +pl- +fl- -cl- -py- -by-
Proto-Romance k g kl pl fl kl pl fl kl pj bj
Sardinian (Nuor.-Logudor.) k g ?kl ?pl ?fl ?kl ?pl ?fl ?kl ?pj ?bj
Proto-Continental k g pl fl pl fl pj bj
Romanian k g k pl fl ?k ?pl ?fl k ?pj ?bj
Proto-Italo-Western k g pj bj
Italian k g kj pj fj kj pj fj kkj ppj bbj
Proto-Western k g ʎʎ pj pj
Old Portuguese k g tʃ,
pr–fr–kr (semi-learned?)
ʎ late jb late jv
Old Spanish k g ʎ,
pl–fl–kl (semi-learned?)
jp ?jb
Old Catalan k g kl pl fl kl pl fl ʎ ? ?
Proto-Gallo-Romance k g kl pl fl kl pl fl ʎʎ ptʃ bdʒ
Old French kl pl fl kl pl fl ʎ
Modern French ʃ ʒ kl pl fl kl pl fl j ʃ ʒ

Development of resonants

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Vulgar Latin -l- -L+! #L- -ll- -ly- -n- -N+! #N- -nn- -ny- -nd- -mb-
Proto-Romance l l l ll lj n n n nn nj nd mb
Sardinian (Nuor.-Logudor.) l l? l ḍḍ ?ldz n n n ?nn ?ndz nd mb
Proto-Continental l l l ll ʎʎ n n n nn ɲɲ nd mb
Romanian l?? l? l?? l?? ʎ?? n?? n? n?? n?? ɲ?? nd mb
Proto-Italo-Western l l l ll ʎʎ n n n nn ɲɲ nd mb
Italian l l l ll ʎʎ n n n nn ɲɲ nd mb
Proto-Western l l l ll ʎʎ n n n nn ɲɲ nd mb
Old Portuguese l l l ʎ (Ṽ)∅ n n ɲ nd mb
Old Spanish l l l ʎ n n n ɲ ɲ nd m
Old Catalan l l ʎ ʎ ʎ n n n ɲ ɲ n m
Proto-Gallo-Romance l l l ll ʎʎ n n n nn ɲɲ nd mb
Gascon l? w l? r; c#! > t ~ tʃ ‹th› ʎ (Ṽ)∅ n; ŋ#! n n ɲ n m
Lengadocien l l ~ w(+dent.) ~ w(+non-dent.) l ~ ʎ ʎ; l#! n n; ∅#! n n ɲ; n#! nd mb
Provençal l? w j n n; ŋ#! n n; ŋ#! ɲ; ŋ#!
Alpin ɾ w; ɾ(+lab.) ʎ; j#! ~ w#! n? n? n? n? ɲ?
Auvernhat l ~ (South.) w~g~v w n (Ṽ)∅; ∅#! n n;(Ṽ)∅#! ɲ; (Ṽ)∅#!
Limousin l? w n n; ∅#! n n ɲ; n#!
Early Old French l l > w l l n (Ṽ)n n n ɲ; jn#! nd mb
Old French l (ɛ > ɛa)w(+C!); l#! l l ʎ n (Ṽ; ɛ̃,ẽ > ã; ɔ̃,õ > ũ)∅ n n ɲ; jn+! > (Ṽj̃)∅
Modern French l OF: aw > o ‹au›;
ɛaw > o ‹eau›;
ew > ø ‹eu›;
ɔw,ow > u ‹ou›;
iw > i;
yw > y ‹u›
l l ʎ n OF: ã > ɑ̃ ‹an,en›;
jẽ > jɛ̃ ‹ien›;
ĩ > ɛ̃ ‹in›;
ũ > ɔ̃ ‹on›;
ỹ > œ̃ >(usu.) ɛ̃ ‹un›
n n ɲ ‹gn›;
OF: ãj̃,ẽj̃ > ɛ̃ ‹ain,ein›;
õj̃ > wɛ̃ ‹oin›;
ỹj̃ > ɥɛ̃ ‹uin›

Development of Proto-Romance vowels

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Proto-Romance a closed a open a final ɛ closed ɛ open e closed e open e final ɔ closed ɔ open o closed o open o final
Sardinian (Nuor.-Logudor.) a ɛ -- e ɔ -- o
Proto-Continental a a: a ɛ ɛ: e e: e ɔ ɔ: -- -- o
Romanian ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??
Proto-Italo-Western a a: a ɛ ɛ: e e: e ɔ ɔ: -- -- o
Italian a a ɛ e e ɔ o o
Proto-Western a a: a ɛ ɛ: e e: e ɔ ɔ: o o: o
Proto-Ibero-Romance a a ɛ e e ɔ o o
Old Portuguese a a ɛ e e ɔ o o
Old Spanish a a je e e we o o
Old Catalan a a e; ɛ ǝ; e ∅; e (prop) ɔ o ∅; e (prop)
Proto-Gallo-Romance a a: ɛ ɛ: e e: ∅; e (prop) ɔ ɔ: o o: ∅; e (prop)
Proto-Northern-French a ǝ ɛ e ei ∅; ǝ (prop) ɔ o ou ∅; ǝ (prop)
Early Old French a æ ǝ ɛ e ei ∅; ǝ (prop) ɔ ue o eu ∅; ǝ (prop)
Late Old French a e ǝ e je e oi ∅; ǝ (prop) o [o,ɔ] ø u ø ∅; ǝ (prop)
Modern French a e; ɛ e; ɛ je; jɛ e; ɛ wa o; ɔ ø; œ u ø; œ

Development of Latin obstruents

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Vulgar Latin F- B- V- -p- -b-, -v- -t- -d- -k- -g-
Proto-Romance f b β p β t d k g
Sardinian (Nuor.-Logudor.) f ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??
Proto-Continental f b β p β t d k g
Romanian f ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ?? ??
Proto-Italo-Western f b β p β t d k g
Italian f b v p(,v) v t(,d) d k,g g
Proto-Western f b β b β d ð g ɣ
Old Portuguese f b v b v d g
European Portuguese f b v β v ð ɣ
Brazilian Portuguese f b v b v d g
Old Spanish h b β b β d g
Modern Spanish ∅ (~ h); (r,l,j,w)f b β ð ɣ
Old Catalan f b β b β d g
Proto-Gallo-Romance f b β b β d ð g ɣ
Gascon h; (r,l)∅~f b w ð ð ɣ ?
Lengadocien f b b~β d~ð z g~ɣ ?
Provençal b v b v d~∅ z g ?
Alpin b v b v z g ?
Auvernhat b v ~ (South.) b b v ~ (South.) b z g ?
Limousin b v b v d z g ?
Early Old French f b v v; ∅ ð ∅; (a+)j
Late Old French f b v v; ∅ ∅; (a+)j
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The following table shows the spelling of various coronal consonants in the standard Romance languages, including the "Old" versions of the Western languages. For a given language, a particular column shows the way the corresponding sound was spelled in the old version of that language, along with the cognate spelling and pronunciation the equivalent modern language.

For example, Old Spanish /ts/ was generally spelled ‹ç› or ‹c› depending on what followed, while /dz/ was spelled ‹z›. Both sounds have merged in modern Spanish in both spelling and pronunciation, usually pronounced either /θ/ (in Northern and Central Spain) or /s/ (elsewhere), and consistently spelled ‹c› if ‹e› or ‹i› follows and ‹z› if not. The use of ‹c› or ‹z› in spelling particular words is related only to the following letter and has no relation to whether the corresponding Old Spanish word had /ts/ or /dz/.

Note that within any particular set of language stages, the sounds and spellings in a particular column are all cognate (unless specifically indicated otherwise), but the sounds are not necessarily cognate across languages. For example, Spanish beso and Portuguese beijo are cognate (both mean "kiss" and are derived from Latin basium), but the Spanish word has /s/ (Old Spanish /z/) while the Portuguese word has /ʒ/.

+ Spelling and pronunciation of palatal and related sounds Old s/ṣ Old z/ẓ Old ts Old dz Old ddz Old ʃ Old tʃ Old dʒ Old ddʒ Old k Old kw Old g Old gw Old j Old ʎ Old ɲ Old h
Old Spanish spelling ‹s›; -‹ss›- -‹s›- ‹ç›(a,o,u); ‹c›(e,i) ‹z›- -- ‹x› ‹ch› ‹j›; ‹g,j›(e,i) -- ‹c›; ‹qu›(e,i) ‹qu,cu› ‹g›; ‹gu›(a,o,u) ‹gu› ‹hi›,‹y› ‹ll› ‹ñ› ‹f›
Spanish spelling ‹s› ‹c›(e,i); ‹z› ‹j› ‹cu› ‹gu›; ‹gü›(e,i) ‹h›
Northern/Central Iberian Spanish θ -- x x -- k kw g [ɣ]; #[g]; (n)[g] gw (allophones
as for /g/)
ʝ [j,ʝ],#[dʒ] ʎ~ʝ ɲ
Andalucian Spanish s ~ θ h tʃ ~ ʃ h ʝ [j,ʝ],#[dʒ] ∅~h
Standard American Spanish s; z @ V_[#]C+v ʝ [j,ʝ],#[dʒ]
Argentinian Spanish ‹y›: ʒ ~ (Buenos Aires) ʃ
‹hi›: j
(Old) Portuguese spelling ‹s›; -‹ss›- -‹s›- ‹ç›(a,o,u); ‹c›(e,i); ‹z›# ‹z› -- ‹x› ‹ch› ‹j›; ‹g,j›(e,i) -- ‹c›; ‹qu›(e,i) ‹qu,cu› ‹g›; ‹gu›(a,o,u) ‹gu›; ‹gü›(e,i) -- ‹lh› ‹nh› --
European Portuguese s
z @V_#V
ʃ @ V_#
ʃ @ V_[#]C-v
ʒ @ V_[#]C+v
z s; etc.
(allophones
as for
/s/ before)
z -- ʃ ʒ -- k kw g [ɣ]; #[g]; (n)[g] gw
(allophones
as for /g/)
-- ʎ ɲ --
Rio de Janeiro Portuguese g gw (Ṽ)j̃
São Paulo Portuguese s
z @V_#V
z @ V_[#]C+v
g gw (Ṽ)j̃
Old Catalan spelling ‹s›; -‹ss›- -‹s›- ‹ç›; ‹c›(e,i) ‹z›[1] ‹tz› ‹x› ‹tx›; ‹ig›# ‹j›; ‹g,j›(e,i) ‹tj›; ‹tg›(e,i) ‹c›; ‹qu›(e,i) ‹qu,cu› ‹g›; ‹gu›(a,o,u) ‹gu›; ‹gü›(e,i) -- ‹ly› ‹ñ› --
Catalan spelling
Catalan dẓ ʃ ʒ k kw g [ɣ]; #[g]; (n)[g] gw
(allophones
as for /g/)
-- ʎ ɲ --
Oldest French spelling
(St Eulalia)
NOTE: Not all sounds cognate
with Old French spelling![2]
‹s›; -‹ss›- /ṣ/
‹zs› /s/
-‹s›- ‹c,tc›; ‹z,tz›# ‹z› ? ‹zs› ‹c› ‹g,j?› ? ‹c,k›; ‹k›(e,i) -- ‹g› -- ‹gi› ? ? ?
Old French spelling ‹s›; -‹ss›- -‹s›- ‹ç›(a,o,u); ‹c›(e,i); ‹z›# ‹z› -- -- ‹ch› ‹j›(a,o,u); ‹g,j›(e,i) -- ‹c,qu›; ‹qu›(e,i) -- ‹g,gu›; ‹gu›(e,i) -- ‹ii›[3] ‹ill›; ‹il›# ‹ign› ‹h›
French spelling ‹ç,-ss-›(a,o,u); ‹c,-ss-›(e,i); ‹x,z›# ‹j,ge›(a,o,u); ‹g,j›(e,i) ‹y›[3] ‹gn›
Modern French s; ∅+
z @ V_#V
z s; ∅+ z -- -- ʃ ʒ -- k -- g -- j[3] ɲ

Reduction of vowel hiatus in Old Portuguese

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First / Second a á ɛ́ e é í ɔ́ o ó ú
a ‹a›; ‹ã› ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
a Examples ma < *mala; lã < *lana paço < *paláço; gado < ganádo quente < *calɛ́nte; elo < *anɛ́lo sai < *sale; cães < canes séta < *saéta < sagitta saír < *salír ? mau < *malo; mãos < *manos mór < *maór saúde < *salúde
ɛ ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
ɛ Examples ? -- -- hotéis < *otɛ́les; vems < *vɛ́nes -- -- -- céu < *cɛlo -- --
e ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
e Examples teia < *tela; veia < *vena gear < *gelár; cear < *cenár giésta < *genɛ́sta vê < vede ver < *vedér; ter < *tenér embigo < *embelígo; vir < *venír ? ceio < *ceno; ? ?
i ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
i Examples pia < *pila; farinha < *farína afiar < *afilár ? civís < *civíles ? ? ? fio < *filo; vinho < *vino ? ?
ɔ ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
ɔ Examples avó < *avɔ́la; mó < mɔ́la; boa < *bɔna -- -- dói < dɔle -- -- -- avô < *avɔ́lo; bom < *bɔno -- --
o ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
o Examples só < *sola; pessoa < *pessóna voar < *volár; soar < *sonár ? pões < *pones doer < *dolér; pôr < ponér; moeda < *monéda moinho < *molíno cobra < *colɔ́bra ? cor < *colór ?
u ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
u Examples mua < *mula; lua < *lúna luar < *lunár ? ? ? ? ? mú < *mulo ? ?

Development of palatal(ized) consonants

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Feature Sardinian Romanian Proto-Italo-Western Italian Proto-Western Ibero-Romance Portuguese Spanish Catalan Gallo-Romance Occitan French
-ty- (often fell in with -tty-) ? ? tts dz Old dz Old dz Old ð Old dz? Old jdz(j)
-cy- ? ? ttʃ ttʃ ttś ts Old ts Old dz Old ts? ttś Old ts? Old ts(j)
+ty- ? ? ts ts Old ts Old ts Old ts? Old ts? Old ts(j)
+cy- ? ? ts Old ts Old ts Old ts? Old ts? Old ts(j)
-c(e,i)- ? ? tś > dź dz Old dz Old dz Old ð Old dz? Old jdz(j)
+d'c(e,i)- ? ? d.tʃ d.tʃ ddź ddz Old dz Old dz Old ddz ddź ? Old dz(j)
-sc(e,i)- ? ? śtʃ ʃʃ śtś śtś Old ts,jʃ Old ts Old jʃ ś ? Old js(j)
-sy- ? ? ś ź jz Old jz Old jz Old jz ź ? Old jz(j)
-ssy-, -scy-, -sty- ? ? śś ʃʃ ś ʃ Old jʃ (late j) Old ʃ Old jʃ (late j) ś ? Old js(j)
-ct- ? ? xt tt jt́ jt́ Old jt Old tʃ Old jt? jt́ tʃ ~ jt Old jt(j)
-x- ? ? xs ss Old jʃ Old jʃ Old jʃ ? Old js(j)
g(e,i)-, j-, dy-, gy- ? ? j j j Old dž Old dž(+o,u); j(+á,é,í); ∅(+V̀) Old dž j dž ~ (Gasc.) j Old dž(j)
-j-, -dy-, -gy- ? ? j ddž; ddž,ddź < -dy- j j Old j,dž Old j; (e,i+)∅ Old dž?? j ? Old: j(+V̀); j(+á,ɛ́,é,í,ɔ́); dž(+ó,ú)

Development of consonants in general (Western Romance only)

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Feature Brazilian Portuguese European Portuguese Leonese Spanish Andalucian Spanish Aragonese Catalan Gascon Lengadocian Lemosin Auvernhat Alpine Provençal Franco-Provençal French
-ty- (Medv.) (often fell in with -tty-) = tś? dz Leon? dz Arag? dz Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? jdz(j)
-cy- (Medv.) = ttʃ > ttś? ts Leon? dz Arag? ts Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? ts(j)
+ty- (Medv.) = tś? ts
+cy- (Medv.) = tʃ > tś? ts
-c(e,i)- (Medv.) = tʃ > tś? dz Leon? dz Arag? dz Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? dz?; often w+! jdz(j)
-sc(e,i)- (Medv.) = śtś? ts, occ jʃ Leon? ts Arag? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? js
-d'c(e,i)- (Medv.) = ddź? dz Leon? dz Arag? dz Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? dz?; often w+! jdz(j)
-sy- (Medv.) = ś > jś? jdʒ Leon? jz > z Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? jz(j)
-ssy-, -scy-, -sty- (Medv.) = śś? ʃj > late jʃ Leon? ʃj > ʃ Arag? ?ʃj > late jʃ Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? js(j)
-ct- (Medv.) = xt > WestRom jt́? jt Leon? Arag? jt jt tʃ (western jt) jt (southern tʃ) jt jt jt(j)
-x- (Medv.) = xs > WestRom jśś? Leon? Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? js(j)
g(e,i)-, j-, dy-, gy- (Medv.) = j? Leon? j(+V́); ∅(+V̀) Arag? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov?
-j-, -dy-, -gy- (Medv.) dʒ ~ j Leon? j; (e,i+)∅ Arag? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? j
-g(e,i)- (Medv.) Leon? j(+V́); ∅(+V̀) Arag? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov?
+c(a)-, +g(a)- (Medv.) k - g k k northern tʃ, else k k tʃ - dʒ
pl-, cl-, fl- (Medv.) = pĺ, kĺ, fĺ? Leon? ʎ pʎ - kʎ - fʎ pl - kl - fl Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? pl - kl - fl
Medial -cl- (Medv.) = kĺ? ʎ Leon? Arag? ʎ Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? ʎ
Medieval ts s s ~ ṣ Leon? θ s ~ θ Arag? s Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? s
Medieval dz z z ~ ẓ Leon? θ s ~ θ Arag? Medv. δ (> ∅; w+!) Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? z
Medieval s s s ~ ṣ Leon? s ~ θ Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? ʃ Alp? Prov? FProv? s
Medieval s + non-vowel s ~ ʃ ʃ Leon? ṣ ~ h usu. h Arag? s Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? ?(+C); ?∅(+#) ?(+C); ∅(#) h > (V̄)∅ (+C); ∅(#)
Medieval z z z ~ ẓ Leon? s ~ θ Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? ʒ Alp? Prov? FProv? z
Medieval ʃ ʃ Leon? x h Arag? ʃ Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv?
Medieval dʒ ʒ Leon? x h Arag? Cat? ʒ z dz, ʒ Alp? dz FProv? ʒ
Medieval tʃ (differing sources) ʃ ʃ Leon? tʃ, occ. ʃ Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? s,ts Alp? Prov? FProv? ʃ
Source of medieval tʃ +pl-,+kl-,+fl- Leon? -ct- Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? +c(a)
Medieval ʎ ʎ Leon? j ~ ʎ (rural) j Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? j
l- (Medv.) Leon? l ʎ ʎ Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? l
Medial -ll-, -nn- (Medv.) l; n Leon? ʎ; ɲ r(+V); c (+non-V) (> t,tʃ); n ?; n Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? l; n
Medial -l-, -n- + late vowel ∅ - (Ṽ)∅ Leon? l - n ? - ∅?? ? - n Lem? Auv? Alp? ? - n ? - (Ṽ)∅ l - n
Medial -l- + late non-vowel w l [ɫ] Leon? l AndSpan? Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? ∅#!; r(+cons) l#!; Medv. w(+cons) (aw,ɛw > o; ew > ø; ɔu,ou > u)
Medial -n- + late non-vowel (Ṽ)∅ Leon? n#!; N+cons AndSpan? Arag? n(C); ∅# ŋ#!; N+cons ∅#!; N+cons (Ṽ)∅ Alp? ŋ#!; N+cons (Ṽ)∅
Medial -nd-, -mb- (Medv.) nd - mb Leon? nd - m Arag? n - m n - m nd - mb FProv? nd - mb
Medial -rr- x ~ h ʁ Leon? r Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? ʁ
Medial -r- ɾ ɾ Leon? ɾ Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? ʁ
-r- + non-vowel x ~ h ɾ Leon? ɾ AndSpan? Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? ɾ; ∅#! ʁ
Stressed Low-Mid e ɛ Leon? je Arag? e ɛ e [e,ɛ] FProv? jɛ (open)
ɛ (closed)
Stressed Low-Mid e before palatal
(also +velar in all Occitan varieties)
e Leon? e Arag? i FProv? i
Stressed High-Mid e e Leon? e Arag? Cat? e FProv? ei > wa (open); ɛ (closed)
Final -e ∅ after bare j,l,r,n,z,dz
Brazilian: e > i; European: e > ɯ
Leon? ∅ after bare j,l,r,n,z,dz,d Arag? ∅ (e as prop) ? ∅ (e as prop)
Stressed Low-Mid o ɔ Leon? je; we Arag? e; o ɔ FProv? wɔ > wɛ > ø (open)
ɔ (closed)
Stressed Low-Mid o before palatal
(also +velar in all Occitan varieties)
o Leon? o Arag? u Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? u > ɥ
Stressed High-Mid o o Leon? o Arag? o u FProv? ou > eu > ø (open)
u (closed)
Final -o o > u Leon? o AndSpan? Arag? ∅ (e as prop) o ? ∅ (e as prop)
Stressed a a palatal+open: ɛ; else:a open: ɛ;
closed: a
Final -a a ɐ Leon? a Arag? a o o Lem? Auv? o Prov? ɑ e > ǝ
Stressed u u y
au ou ou > o Leon? o Arag? Cat? au FProv? ɔ
ai < a + j (from palatal) ei Leon? e Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? ɛ
Initial f- f f Leon? h > ∅; f(+l,r,w) often still h; f(+l,r,w) Arag? f h f
bv merger no no Leon? yes yes Arag? usu. yes yes Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? no
Medial -p- b b [β] Leon? b [β] Arag? b [β] b [β] Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? v; ∅ (near o,u)
Medial -t- d d [δ] Leon? d [δ] Arag? d [δ]; t#! Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? Medv. δ > ∅
Medial -d- ∅, d ∅, d [δ] Leon? ∅, d [δ] Arag? Medv. dz (> ∅; w+!) d [δ] Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? Medv. δ > ∅
Medial -k- g g [ɣ] Leon? g [ɣ] Arag? g [ɣ]; k#! Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? j j(+a); ∅(+o,u)
Medial -g- ∅, g ∅, g [ɣ] Leon? g [ɣ] Arag? ∅, (g [ɣ]; k#!) Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? j j(+a); ∅(+o,u)
+qu(a) BP? EP? Leon? Span? AndSpan? Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? Fr?
+qu(e,i) BP? EP? Leon? Span? AndSpan? Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? Fr?
-qua, -qu(e,i) BP? EP? Leon? Span? AndSpan? Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? Fr?
+gu(a) BP? EP? Leon? Span? AndSpan? Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? Fr?
+gu(e,i) BP? EP? Leon? Span? AndSpan? Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? Fr?
BP? EP? Leon? Span? AndSpan? Arag? Cat? Gasc? Leng? Lem? Auv? Alp? Prov? FProv? Fr?


+ strong position (next to consonant or word boundary) +! strong position after loss of unstressed vowel
- weak position (next to vowel)
# word boundary #! word boundary after loss of unstressed vowel
é stressed vowel è unstressed vowel
high-mid vowel (e or o) ę low-mid vowel (ɛ or ɔ)
‹xy› ‹x› and ‹y› are different spellings for same sound
‹x›,‹y› either ‹x› or ‹y›, unpredictably
‹x› (‹y›) usually ‹x›, occasionally ‹y›, unpredictably
‹x›;‹y› ‹x› or ‹y› predictably, in different contexts (often indicated)
s.t. sometimes occ. occasionally
sound disappears
? unknown
NA context doesn't apply
(foo) outcome for this sound is unexpected
((foo)) outcome for this sound is unexpected because word is learned or semi-learned

Example words with development shown, occasional sound development shown

edit
Development of Romance consonants
Latin Portuguese Spanish Catalan Old Occitan French Romansh (Sursilvan, etc.)[4] Italian Romanian Sardinian
t, d
vita "life" vida vida /bida/ vida vida vie /vi/ vita vita vită "cattle" bida (Nu bita)
cantātu "sung" cantado cantado cantat cantat chanté /ʃɑ̃te/ ? cantato cÎntat cantadu (Nu cantatu)
cantāta "sung (fem.)" cantada cantada cantata cantata chantée /ʃɑ̃te/ ? cantata cÎntadă cantada (Nu cantata)
audīre "to hear" ouvir < *ou-ir oír ? auzir ouïr /wiʀ/ udir udire auzi ((audíre)) "approve"
vidēre "to see" ver ver /ber/ < OSp veer vęure < vidĕre vezer voir /vwaʀ/ vesair /vezajr/ vedere vedea bíere (Nu bídere)
pede "foot" pie pęu pied /pje/ (OF pié) pe /pe/ piede piez pe(i) (Nu pede)
cōda "tail" < cauda ((cauda)) (cola) < *coda cua coa queue /kø/ cua /kua/ coda coadă coa (Nu coda)
k,g (+a,o,u)
capu "head, end" < caput cabo cabo cap ? chef /ʃɛf/ < OF chief chau /tɕaw/ capo cap cabu (Nu capu) "end of skein"
causa "thing" cousa cosa cosa ? chose /ʃoz/ chaussa /tɕawssa/ cosa cauză "cause" ((cosa))
cambiāre "change, exchange" cambiar cambiar canviar ? changer /ʃɑ̃ʒe/ (s)tgamiar /(s)tɕamjar/; SR (s)cumiar /(s)kumjar/;PU (s-)chamger /(s-)tɕamdʑer/ < ex-cambiāre cambiare (s)chimba < ex-cambiāre ((cammiare?))
vacca "cow" vaca vaca vaca ? vache /vaʃ/ vatga /vatɕa/ vacca vacă baca
gaudiu, gaudia "joy, enjoyment" (gọzo) < Sp gozo gaudi ? joie /ʒwa/ (giudida) /dʑudida/ < ? godére "to enjoy" < gaudēre ? godiu, gosu?; bodíre, godíre "to enjoy" < gaudēre
gallīna "hen" galinha gallina gallina ? OF geline giaglina /dʑaʎina/ gallina găină gadhina "young hen"
pacāre "to pay" pagar pagar pagar pagar payer /peje/ pajar /pajar/ pagare ? pacàre
amīcu "friend" amigo amigo amic amic ami /ami/ ami /ami/ amico amic amicu
plāga "wound" chaga llaga plaga plaga plaie /plɛ/ plaja /plaja/ piaga plagă praga
lēgāle "loyal" leal leal lleial leiale loyal /lwajal/ ? (leale) < OF (loial) < Fr ((legale)) "legal"
qu,gu
+qu(a) ‹qu› kw; ‹qu›,‹c› < quà ‹cu›; ‹cu›,‹c› < quà ? ? ‹quc› k ? ‹qu› kw ‹p› ‹b›
+qu(e,i) ‹qu› k ‹qu› k ? ? ‹qu› k ? #‹ch› k; (C)‹qu› kw ? ‹b›, ‹ch› k
-qu ‹gu› g; ‹gu› gw < qua ? ? ‹iv› ? ‹gu› gw ‹p› ‹bb›
+gu(a) ‹gu› gw ‹gu› gw ‹gu› gw ? ‹gu› g ? ‹gu› gw ‹b› ‹b›
+gu(e,i) ‹gu› g ‹gu› g ‹gu› g ? ‹gu› g; ‹g›# ? ‹gu› gw g; dʒ(e,i) ‹b›
quattro "four" < quattuor quatro cuatro quatre ? quatre /katʀ/ quattre /kwattre/ quattro patru bátor(o) < quattuor
quaerere "seek, ask" querer querer ? ? OF querre -curir /-kurir/ (SR,ST) chiedere ceri chèrrere "want, need"
quid "what" que que que ? que /kǝ/, quoi /kwa/ tge /tɕe/ che ce chi
quōmodo "how" como como < OSp cuomo com ? comme /kɔm/ co /ko/ come cum comènte?
aqua "water" água agua aigua ? eau /o/ < OF aive aua /awa/ acqua apă abba
sequente "following" seguinte siguiente seguint ? suivant /sɥivɑ̃/ < OF sivant SR/ST/SM sequent /sekwent/ (s.l.), PU/VA seguaint /segwajnt/ seguente ? sichíre "to follow" < sequīre (Lg sighíre??)
lingua "tongue" lingua lengua llengua ? langue /lɑ̃g/ lieunga /ljewnga/ lingua limbă limba
sangue "blood" sangue sangre < sanguine sang ? sang /sɑ̃/ sang /sank/ sangue sânge sàmbine < sanguine
p,b,f,v
caballu "horse" cavalo caballo cavall ? cheval /ʃǝval/ chaval /tɕaval/ cavallo cal cabàdhu
vīvere "to live" viver vivir viure? viure? vivre /vivʀ/ viver /viver/ vivere via bívere
l
bella "beautiful (fem.)" bela bella bella ? belle /bɛl/ bella /bella/ bella ? bédha
caballu "horse" cavalo caballo cavall ? cheval /ʃǝval/ chaval /tɕaval/ cavallo cal cabàdha
istēlla "star" < stēlla estrẹla estrella estrella ? étoile /etwal/ < stēla staila /stajla/ stella stea istédhu < istēllu
sĕlla "seat, saddle" sela silla ? ? selle /sɛl/ sella /sella/ sella şa sèdha
gallīna "hen" galinha gallina gallina ? OF geline giaglina /dʑaʎina/ gallina găină gadhína "young hen"
lacte "milk" leite leche llet lait lait /lɛ/ latg /latɕ/ latte lapte làte
līnu "flax, linen" linho lino li ? lin /lɛ̃/ glin /ʎin/ lino in línu
lūna "moon" lua luna lluna ? lune /lyn/ glina /ʎina/ luna lună lúna
colōre "color" cọr color color ? couleur /kulɶʀ/ colur /colur/ colore culoare colòre, cabòri???
caelu "sky" ceu cielo cel ? ciel /sjɛl/ tschiel /tʃiel/ cielo cer chelu
sōlu "alone" só < sōla solo sol ? seul /sɶl/ sulet /sulet/ < sōlettu solo ? sólu, sou?
alteru "other" outro otro altre ? autre /otʀ/ auter /awter/ altro alte ?
fīliu "son" filho hijo fill filh, fil (fils /fis/); OF fil figl /fiʎ/ figlio fiu ?
folia "leaf" folha hoja full < foliu fǫlha feuille /fɶj/ fegl /feʎ/ < foliu foglia foaie ?
muliēre "woman" mulher mujer muller ? OF moillier PU/VA muglier /muʎier/ moglie < mulier muiere mutzere
cl,pl,fl,gl,bl
clave "key" chave llave clau ? clef /kle/ clav /klaf/ chiave cheie ?
plēnu "full" cheio lleno ple ? plein /plɛ̃/ plain /plajn/ pieno plin ?
flamma "flame" chama llama ? ? flamme /flɑm,flam/ flomma /flomma/ fiamma Ar flamă ?
oclu "eye" < oculu olho ojo ull ? oeil /ɶj/ egl /eʎ/ occhio ochi ?
oricla "ear" < auricula orelha oreja orella ? oreille /ɔʀɛj/ ureglia /ureʎa/ orecchio ureche ?
blancu "white" branco blanco ? ? blanc /blɑ̃/ ? bianco ? ?
n
bonu "good" bom bueno bo ? bon /bɔ̃/ bun /bun/ buono bun ?
pane "bread" pão pan pa ? pain /pɛ̃/ paun /pawn/ pane pâine ?
plēnu "full" cheio lleno ple ? plein /plɛ̃/ plain /plajn/ pieno plin ?
vīnu "wine" vinho vino vi ? vin /vɛ̃/ vin /vin/ vino vin ?
lūna "moon" lua luna lluna ? lune /lyn/ glina /ʎina/ luna lună ?
venīre "to come" vir venir venir ? venir /vǝniʀ/ vegnir /veɲir/ venire veni ?
canna "reed" cana caña canya ? canne /kan/ ? canna (cană) "can" < Ger. < Lat. ?
annu "year" ano año any ? an /ɑ̃/ onn /onn/ anno an ?
signu, signa "sign" senha seña ? ? seing /sɛ̃/ ensaina /ensajna/ (PT segn /seɲ/) segno semn sinnu or sinna???
balneu "bath" banho baño bany ? bain /bɛ̃/ bogn /boɲ/ bagno baie ?
vīnea "vineyard" vinha viña vinya ? vigne /viɲ/ ? vigna vie bindza?? (cf. bendzo < venio)
r
area "surface, threshing floor" eira era era ? aire /ɛʀ/ ? aia arie ?
operāriu "worker" obreiro obrero obrer ? ouvrier /uvʀie/ ? operaio ? ?
caldāria "cauldron" caldeira caldera caldera ? chaudière /ʃodjɛʀ/ ? caldaia căldare ?
coriu "leather" coiro, couro cuero cuir ? cuir /kɥiʀ/ (tgirom /tɕirom/; SR curom /kurom/) < ? cuoio ? ?
(sal) muria "brine, pickle" salmoira, salmoura salmuera salmorra ? saumure /somyʀ/ < *salmuire ? moia saramură ?
c (+e,i)
centu "hundred" cento ciento cent ? cent /sɑ̃/ tschient /tʃient/ cento ? ?
cēra "wax" cera cera cera ? cire /siʀ/ tschaira /tʃajra/ cera ceară ?
caelu "sky" ceu cielo cel ? ciel /sjɛl/ tschiel /tʃiel/ cielo cer chelu
dulce "sweet" doce dulce dolç ? douce /dus/ dultsch /dultʃ/ dolce dulce ?
vicīnu "neighbor" vezinho vecino veí ? voisin /vwazɛ̃/ vischin /viʃin/ vicino vecin ?
placēre "pleasure" prazer placer plaer ? plaisir /plɛziʀ/ plaschair /plaʃajr/ piacere plăcere ?
vōce "voice" voz voz veu ? voix /vwa/ vusch /vuʃ/ voce voce ?
dece "ten" dez diez deu ? dix /dis/ diesch /dieʃ/ dieci zece ?
pace "peace" paz paz pau ? paix /pɛ/ pasch /paʃ/ pace pace ?
g (+e,i)
rēgīna "queen" rainha reina < *reína reina ? reine /ʀɛn/ < *reíne regina /redʑina/ (VA raïna /raina/) reina regină ?
lēge "law" lei ley llei ? loi /lwa/ (lescha /leʃa/ or /leʒa/?; PT/VA ledscha /ledʒa/) < ? legge lege ?
digitu "finger" dedo dedo dit ? doigt /dwa/ < OF deit det /det/ dito deget ?
sagitta "arrow" seta saeta sageta (semi-learned?) ? ? ? saetta săgeată ?
vīgintī > *vigintī "twenty" vinte veinte vint ? vingt /vɛ̃/ < OF vint ventg /ventɕ/ venti ? ?
frigidu "cold" (> PIW fréjedo,fréjdo) frio frío < *fríjedo < *fréjedo fred < *fréjdo ? froid /fʀwa/ fraid /frajd/ freddo frig ?
cogitāre > *cugitāre "to think, take care" cuidar cuidar cuidar ? OF cuidier SR quitar /kwitar/ ((cogitare)) cugeta ?
fūgīre "to flee" fugir huír fugir ? fuir /fɥiʀ/ fugir /fudʑir/ fuggire fugi ?
magis "more, but" mais "more", mas "but" más "more", mas "but" més ? mais /mɛ/ ma /ma/ "but", mai /maj/ "never" ma "but", mai "never" mai ?
magistru "master, teacher" mestre maestro, maestre mestre ? maître /mɛtʀ/ maister /majster/ maestro (maestru) < It. ?
j,dy,gy
jam "already" ja ya ja ? (dé-)ja /deʒa/ gia /dʑa/ gia (deja) < Fr. ?
jen(u)āriu, jan(u)āriu "January" janeiro enero gener ? janvier /ʒɑ̃vje/ schaner /ʒaner/? gennaio gerar zannarju
jacēre "to lie" jazer yacer (OSp azer) jeure ? gésir /ʒeziʀ/ giaschair /dʑaʃajr/ giacere zăcea ((giachire??))
gemma "bud, gem" gema yema "tip of finger" ((gemma)) ? gemme /ʒɛm/ ? gemma (gemă) < Fr. ghema?
gingīva, gincīva "gum" gengiva encía geniva ? gencive /ʒɑ̃siv/ ? gengiva gingie ghinghía (Nu ghinghíba?)
jocu "game" jọgo juego joc ? jeu /ʒø/ gieu /dʑjew/, SR giug /dʑuk/ giuoco joc zocu?
juvene "young" jovem joven jove ? jeune /ʒœn/ giuven /dʑuven/ giovane june ((zòbanu))
deorsum "down" ? OSp (a)yuso ? ? OF jus giu /dʑu/ giù jos jossu, zossu
maju "May" maio mayo maig ? mai /mɛ/ matg /matɕ/ maggio mai maju
hodie "today" hoje hoy (a)vui ? -hui /ɥi/ oz /ots/ oggi azi oje, oe?
mediu "middle" meio ((medio)) mig ? mi /mi/ mez /mets/ mezzo miez mesu? mezu?
radiu "spoke, ray, radius" raio rayo raig ? rayon < radiōne /ʀɛjɔ̃/ ? raggio, razzo rază < radia ratza
hordeu "barley" ? ? (ordi) ? orge /ɔʀʒ/ ierdi /ierdi/ (PT üerdi /yerdi/?) orzo orz ?
corrigia "strap, belt" correia correa corretja ? courroie /kuʀwa/ ? coreggia curea ?
ty,cy
puteu "well" poço pozo pou ? puits /pɥi/ ? pozzo puţ putzu?
trīstitia "sadness" tristeza tristeza tristesa ? tristesse /tʀistɛs/ ? tristezza tristeţe ?
martiu "March" março marzo < OSp março març ? mars /maʀs/ < OF marz mars /mars/ (ST/PT/VA/ marz /marts/) marzo marţ martzu
spērāntia "hope" esperança esperanza < OSp esperança esperança ? espérance /ɛspeʀɑ̃s/ speranza /sperantsa/ speranza (speranţa) < It. ?
altiāre "lift" alçar alzar < OSp alçar alçar ? hausser /ose/ auzar /awtsar/ alzare în-ălţá altzare
calciāre "put on" calçar calzar < OSp calçar calçar ? chausser /ʃose/ chalzer /tɕawtser/ < calciārium calciare, calzare în-călţá ?
uncia "ounce, inch" onça onza ? ? once /ɔ̃s/ unza /untsa/ oncia ? untza
pettia "piece" peça pieza peça ? pièce /pjɛs/ ? pezzo < pettiu ? peta (Nu peθa) "meat"
facia, facie "face" face haz faç ? face /fas/ fatscha /fatʃa/ faccia faţă fatza
faciō "I do" faço (hago) < facō ? ? fais /fɛ/ fatsch /fatʃ/ faccio ? fatzu?
bra(c)chiu "arm" braço brazo braç ? bras /bʀa/ < OF braz bratsch /bratʃ/ braccio braţ bratzu
captiāre "hunt, catch" caçar cazar caçar? ? chasser /ʃase/ < OF chacier chatschar /tɕatʃar/ cacciare, cazzare a-căţá catzare?
directiāre "straighten, prepare" a-dereçar a-derezar ? ? dresser /dʀɛse/ < OF drecier ? d(i)rizzare ? deretare?
ct
factum "made" feito hecho ? ? fait /fɛ/ fatg /fatɕ/ fatto fapt?? fatu
octō "eight" oito ocho vuit ? huit /ɥit/ otg /otɕ/ (PU och /otɕ/?, VA ot /ot/) otto opt oto
lacte "milk" leite leche llet lait lait /lɛ/ latg /latɕ/ (PU, VA lat /lat/) latte lapte late
sy,scy,sty,sc(+e,i),x,ps
axe "axle, axis" eixo < axu eje eix ? essieu /esjø/ < axellu ischigl /iʃiʎ/ < axellu (PU/VA aschigl) asse (osie) < Slavic asse
(dē+)laxāre "to loosen, to let" deixar dejar deixar ? laisser /lɛse/ laschar /laʃar/ lassare "loosen", lasciare "let" lăsá lassare
exāmen "swarm" enxame enjambre eixam ? essaim /esɛ̃/ -tgam /tɕam/ sciame ? ?
sex "six" seis seis sis ? six /sis/ sis /sis/ sei şase ses
pisce "fish" peixe pez peix ? OF pois pesch /peʃ/ pesce peşte pische
cognoscere "to know" conhecer conocer conèixer ? connaître /kɔnɛtʀ/ (connaissons /kɔnɛsɔ̃/ < cognoscēmus) conuscher /conuʃer/ conoscere cunoaşte connòschere
caseu "cheese" queijo queso ? ? ? chaschiel /tɕaʃel/ < casiellum cacio caş casu
basiāre "to kiss" beijar besar ? baizar baiser /bɛze/ bitschar /bitʃar/ (VA bütschar /bytʃar/) baciare (bezeá) < Fr basare
bassiāre "to lower" baixar bajar baixar ? baisser /bɛse/ s-bassar /s-bassar/ < bassāre ? ? ?
fasci "bundle" feixe haz feixe ? faix /fɛ/ fasch /faʃ/ fascio ? ?
fascia "bundle of sticks, strip" faixa (faja, borrowed?) faixa ? OF faisse ? fascia faşă "bud, bandage" fasca?
asciata "hoe" enxada azada aixada ? ? ? ? ? ?
angustia "anguish" ((angústia)) ((angustia)) angoixa ? angoisse /ɑ̃gwas/ ? angoscia ? ((angustía))
ipse, ipsum "that" (orig. "self") esse, isso ese, eso eixe ? ? (?sez) < ? esso ? ?
gypsum "plaster" gesso yeso guix ? ((gypse /ʒips/)) ? gesso ? ?


Other words for Romansh:

  • For ll: sella "seat" > sella; anellu "ring" > anè (pl. anels); pelle "skin" > pel; stēlla "star" > staila; caballu "horse" > chaval; vitellu "calf" > vadè (pl. vadels); cipulla "onion" > tschagula; medulla "marrow" > magugl; capillu "hair" > chavel
  • For cc: vacca "cow" > vatga; saccu "sac" > satg; siccāre "to dry" > setgar; bucca "mouth" > bucca (but cf. Puter vacha, sach, secher, buocha)
  • For pp:
  • For tt: gutta "drop" > gut; plattu "flat" > plat, fem. platta; gattu/gatta "cat" > giat/giatta; mittere > metter "to put"
  • For c: fōcu "fire" > fieu; secūritāte > segirtad (PT sgürezza); porcu > portg; porcellu > purschè (pl. purschels); acūtu "sharp" > giz (PT agüz, fem. agüzza); cūra > tgira; corpus > corp; curtu > curt; colōre > colur
  • For ti: bestia > biestga
  • For b: tabula > tavla "roadsign"
  • For nn: annu "year" > onn; pinna "feather" > penna "pen"
  • For mm: flamma "flame" > flomma
  • For ss: passu "step" > pass; massa "mass" > massa; grossu "thick" > gross
  • For rr: terra "earth" > terra
  • For

Development of Romance consonants

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The following table shows the main outcomes of Proto-Romance vowels and consonants in the various Romance languages.

Notes:

  • C- means after a non-vowel (word-initially or after a consonant), and before a vowel. Note that in the clusters of the form Cr which can occur word-initially (/br,pr,fr,dr,tr,gr,cr/), the C in question behaves in almost all respects like it is followed by a vowel. For example, Proto-Romance /matre/ "mother" > Spanish [maðre], with lenition of /t/ exactly as would occur between vowels, and /matre/ > Early Old French /meðrǝ/ (later Old French /merǝ/, modern /mɛʀ/), with similar lenition of /t/ (again, which normally only occurs between vowels) and raising of /a/ > /e/ (which only occurs in open syllables, which are normally syllables followed by only a single consonant).
  • -C- means between vowels. This normally applies before any language-specific vowel deletions happened, but after the Proto-Romance intertonic vowel deletions (which produced clusters like /kl/, e.g. Appendix Probi oricla < auricula "(little) ear").
  • -C means after a vowel (word-finally or before a consonant). Word-final outcomes of this sort generally occurred after deletion of final short vowels. In particular, Catalan, Occitan, and Old French deleted all unstressed final vowels except Proto-Romance /a/ (from Latin a,ā). This deletion affected both absolutely final vowels (including vowels before final -m in Latin, which had been lost by this time), and final vowels before final -s. The only exception was when deletion would result in a consonant cluster that could not appear in a syllable coda, e.g. /tr/; in this case, a prop vowel (/e/ or /ǝ/) would appear. In these three languages, newly final obstruents were devoiced, e.g. /b d g dʒ v ð z ʒ/ > /p t k tʃ f θ s ʃ/. Later on, many of these final consonants were deleted in French; subsequent to this, final /ǝ/ (from final /a/ or the prop vowel) disappeared, but the newly final consonants resulting from this were not devoiced or otherwise changed, and should be treated as medial consonants.
  • The above three are given in the order C-, -C-, -C. If one is omitted, the previous one applies. For example, t-, -[ð]- means that [ð] occurs after a vowel regardless of what follows.
  • Something like a(…u) means "a if /u/ occurs in the next syllable".
  • Something like a(n) means "a if /n/ immediately follows".
  • Something like (n)a means "a if /n/ immediately precedes".
  • NES = northern European Spanish; AS = American Spanish; Nu = Nuorese Sardinian; Lo = Logudorese Sardinian.
Development of Romance consonants
Latin Brazilian Portuguese European Portuguese Spanish Catalan[a] Old Occitan[a] French[a] Romansh (Sursilvan, etc.)[a],[b] Italian Romanian Sardinian
-tt- -t-, -[tʃ](i)-[c] -t- -t- -t- -t- -t- -t- -tt- -tt- -tt-
t t-, tʃ(i)-, -d-, -[dʒ](i)-[c] t-, -[ð]- t-, -[ð]- t-, -d-, -t t-, -d-, -t t-, -∅- t-, -d- t, -t/d- t, ts(i)[d] t, Lo -ð-
d d-, [dʒ](i)-[c], -∅/d-, -∅/[dʒ](i)-[c] d, -∅/[ð]- d, -∅/[ð]- d, -∅-, -u d, -z-(V́), -∅-(V̀) d, -∅- d, -?- d d, z(i)[d] d, Lo -∅-, Nu -ð-
-ss- -s- -s- -s- -s- -s-, -∅ -s-? -ss- -ss-? -ss-
s s-, -z-, -s/ʃ s-, -z-, -ʃ s s, -z-, -s s, -z-, -s s-, -z-, -∅ s, -z-? s, -z-, -s+, -∅# s, ʃ(i)[d] s
-pp- -p- -p- -p- -p- -p- -p- -pp- -pp- -pp-
p p, -b- p, -[β]- p, -[β]- p, -b-, -p p, -b-, -p p, -v/∅-[e], -f/∅[e] p, -b- p, -p/v-[f] p? p, Lo -β-
b b, -v- b, -[β]-[g] b, -[β]-, -u b, -v/∅-[h], -u b, -v/∅-[e], -f/∅[e] b, -v-? b, -v- b, -∅- b, Lo -∅-, Nu -β-
f f, -v- ∅-, f(r,l,w,j)-, -β- f, -v- f, -v- ? f, -v/∅-[e], -f/∅[e] f? f, -v-? f, -∅-? f, Lo -∅-, Nu -β-??
v v b, -[β]- b-, -[β]-, -u v, -v/∅-[h], -u v, -v/∅-[e], -f/∅[e] v v v, -∅- v, Lo -∅-, Nu -β-
c(a,o,u) k, -g- k, -[ɣ]- k, -[ɣ]- k, -[ɣ]-, -k k, -g-, -k k, ʃ(a), -∅-, (a)-{I}j- k-, c(a)-, -?- k, -k/g- k k, Lo -ɣ-
c(e,i) s, -z-, -s ES θ, AS s s, -z-, -s s, -z-, -s s, -{I}z-, -{I} tʃ, -?- k, Lo -ɣ-
g(a,o,u) g, -∅/g- g, -∅/[ɣ]- g, -∅/[ɣ]- g, -?- g, -?- g, ʒ(a), -∅-, (a)-{I}j- g, ɟ(a), -?- g g g, Lo -∅-, Nu -ɣ-
g(e,i) ʒ, -j+ j(á,é,í)-, ∅(à,è,ì)-, x-[i], -j- ʒ, -j+, -tʃ ʒ, -j+ ʒ, -j+ dʒ, -? dʒ, -ddʒ- ʒ? g, Lo -∅-, Nu -ɣ-
(a,e,i)g(e,i) -∅- -∅- -ʒ-, -j+ ? -∅-, -j+ ? -∅- ʒ Lo -∅-, Nu -ɣ-
qu(a,o,u) kʷ/k, -gʷ/g- kʷ/k, -[ɣʷ]/[ɣ]- kʷ/k, -[ɣʷ]/[ɣ]- kʷ/k, -[ɣʷ]/[ɣ]- kʷ/k, -gʷ/g-? k, -{I}v- ? p b, -bb-
qu(e,i) k, -g- k, -[ɣ]- k, -[ɣ]- k, -g- k, -g- ? k-, kʷ ?-, p b/k-, -bb-
gu(a,o) gʷ/g gʷ/g gʷ/g ? g g? b b
gu(e,i) g g g ? ? g; dʒ(e,i)
l l-, -∅-, -w l, -∅- l ʎ-, l l l, [U]+ l, ʎ(i,u) l l, ∅(i)[d] ?
-ll- -l-, -w -l- -j-, NES -ʎ- -ʎ- ? -l- ? -ll- ? -ɖɖ-
r x-, -ɾ-, -x ʀ-, -ɾ- r-, -ɾ- ʀ ? r r r
-rr- -h- -ʀ- -r- -r- -r-? -ʀ- ? -rr- -rr- -rr-
n n, -∅-, -{N} n n, -∅ n, -n/∅[j] n, -{N} n, ɲ(i)? n n n
-nn- -n- -ɲ- -ɲ- -n-? -n-, -{N} -n-? -nn- -nn- -nn-
m m, -{N} m m? m? m, -{N} m m m m
-mm- -m- -m- -m- -m- -m- -m-? -mm- -mm- -mm-
-ly- -ʎ- -x- -ʎ- -ʎ- -j- (< /ʎ/) ? -ʎʎ- -j- (< /ʎ/) -dz-
-ny- ɲ ɲ ɲ ɲ ɲ; -ɛ̃ ‹in› ? ɲ -j- -ndz-
-gn- -mn- -nn-
-ry- -jr/wr- -{I}r- -{I}r- -?-, -jer/er- < -ary- -{I}r-, -jer- < -ary- ? -j/r- ? ?
j, dy, gy ʒ-, -ʒ/j- j(á,é,í)-, ∅(à,è,ì)-, x-[i], -j- ʒ-, -ʒ/dʒ-, -tʃ ‹j›; ‹i›#! ʒ-, -{I}- ? dʒ-, -ddʒ/ddz- ? <j>, <dz>
ty[k] s-, -z-, -s ES θ, AS s s-, -∅-, -w ? s-, -{I}z-, -{I} ? ts-, -tts- ts Nu θ, Lo t
cy s ES θ, AS s s ? s, -∅ ? tʃ, -ttʃ- ts Nu θ, Lo t
sy ʃ-, -jʒ- x-, {I}s ʃ-, -{I}z- ?-, -jz- s-, -{I}z- ? ʃ-, -tʃ- ʃ ?, -z-
-ssy-, -scy-, -sty- -jʃ- -x- -{I}ʃ- -?- -{I}s- -?- -ʃʃ- -ʃ- -?-
-ct- -jt- -tʃ- -jt- ‹itch› -{I}t- ? -tt- -pt- ?
cl ʃ-, -ʎ- j-, NES ʎ-, +tʃ-, -x- kl, -ʎ- kl, -ʎ- kl-, +(k)l-, -j- (< -ʎ-) ? kj-, -kkj- ?, -k(j)- ?
fl- fl- fl- fl- ? fj- ? ?
pl ʃ-, -bl- j-, NES ʎ-, +tʃ-, -βl- pl, -βl- pl, -bl- ?? pl, -bl- ? pj-, -ppj- ? ?
gl gr-, -ʎ- gl-, -x- gl, -ʎ- gl-, -ʎ- gl-, -j- (< -ʎ-) ? gj-, -ggj- ?, -g(j)- ?
-sc(e,i) -jʃ/s- ES -θ-, AS -s- -{I}ʃ-[l] ? -{I}s- ? -ʃʃ- ? ?
-x- -jʃ- -{I}x- ? -‹is›- -{I}s- ? -ss- ? -ss-
  1. ^ a b c d Does not include consonants that become final through loss of final unstressed /e,i,o,u/ (lost when absolutely final or followed by final /m,s/). Generally, voiced obstruents (/b,d,g,v,z,ʒ,dʒ/) devoice. In addition, French deletes most obstruents, although they remain in spelling, usually with the original consonant etymologically restored (in Old French, obstruents devoiced and were spelled that way).
  2. ^ The form given is Rumantsch Grischun, a combined, standardized form of Swiss Rhaeto-Romance, based largely on Sursilvan, one of the main dialects. Each of the five main dialects has its own phonology and standard spelling, and there are few words with the same spelling across all of these dialects. The largest difference is in the vowels. However, when one or more of the dialects has a different outcome for the particular consonant which the word is illustrating, the alternative outcome or outcomes are given, identified as follows: SR = Sursilvan, ST = Sutsilvan, SM = Surmiran, PU = Puter, VA = Vallader. In the same alternative outcome appears in more than one dialect, only the form of the first-mentioned dialect in the above list of dialects that exemplifies the outcome is given.
  3. ^ a b c d Most (but not all) Brazilian dialects have /ti,di/ > [tʃi,dʒi], and it is spreading.
  4. ^ a b c d The palatalization of /t, d, s, l/ to /ts, dz, ʃ, ʎ/ > /ts, z, ʃ, (j)/ was triggered by a following /i/ or /j/, but occurred after the breaking of /ɛ/ to /je/. Hence, palatalization resulted from a following stressed Latin e or ī, but not from ē or i, which both became Romanian /e/, which did not break. In the case of /l/, palatalization produced /ʎ/, later simplifying to /j/ and then disappearing entirely before the following front vowel. Hence yepure /jepure/ "hare" < */ʎepure/ < */ljepure/ < lepore; in "linen" < */ʎin/ < */lin/ < līnum; but lemn "wood" < lĭgnu (no i develops).
  5. ^ a b c d e f g h Labial /v/ lost usually near /o/ or /u/, but there are exceptions. Normal development: paon "peacock" < pavōne; peur "fear" < pavōre; Noël "Christmas" < novellu; clou "nail" < OF clo < clāvu; OF reüser "refuse" < refūsare; OF nue "cloud" < nūba. Normal vs. exceptional: Normal su "known" < OF sëu < sapūtu, but exceptional savon "soap" < sapōne; normal loup /lu/ "wolf", OF leu < lupu but exceptional louve "she-wolf" < lupa.
  6. ^ Possibly words with ‹v› from a nearby dialect with lenition? Florence is very near the La Spezia-Rimini line.
  7. ^ Old Spanish had phonemic /b/ (pronounced [β] after vowels, as well as after consonants other than /m,n/) and /v/. Writing generally noted them ‹b› and ‹v›, respectively. Perhaps around the1600's /v/ merged into /b/, maintaining the same [β] allophony. Subsequent to that, words were etymologically respelled to match the original Latin word whenever possible; this particularly affects Latin /b/ between vowels, which became /v/ (originally pronounced [β]) in all the Romance languages, and was formerly spelled with a /v/, just as in Portuguese and French. Hence Latin habēre > Old Spanish (h)aver, Portuguese haver, French avoir, Italian avere, but Modern Spanish haber. Similarly Latin imperfect -ābat > Old Spanish/Portuguese/Italian -ava but Spanish -aba.
  8. ^ a b Near /o/ or /u/.
  9. ^ a b Before /a,e,i/, generally /j/ ‹y› in the most basic, popularly-inherited words, disappearing in an unstressed syllable; /x/ ‹g› in some popularly-inherited words under Church influence, and in learned words. Before /o,u/, /x/ ‹g› in most words of all origins.
  10. ^ Presence or absence of late-final /n/ was dialect-specific.
  11. ^ -ty- was often strengthened, falling in with -tty-. +ty- has the same outcome as -cy- and +cy- everywhere except in Italian — and even in Italian there are many confusions between the two.
  12. ^ ‹éix› < asc, ęsc; ‹èix› < ẹsc; ‹ix›

Development of Romance consonants with intermixed examples

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Development of Romance consonants
Latin Portuguese Spanish Catalan Old Occitan French Romansh (Sursilvan, etc.)[5] Italian Romanian Sardinian
-t- ‹d› ‹d› ‹d›; ‹t›#! ? ‹t› (‹d›) ‹t›; ‹ţ›(ęi) ‹d› ð (Nu ‹t›)
-d- — (‹d›) —, ‹d› —; ‹u›+! ‹z›(V́); —(V̀) ? ‹d› ‹d›; ‹z›(ęi) — (Nu ‹d› ð)
vita "life" vida vida vida vida vie /vi/ vita vita vită "cattle" bida (Nu bita)
cantātu "sung" cantado cantado cantat cantat chanté /ʃɑ̃te/ ? cantato cÎntat cantadu (Nu cantatu)
cantāta "sung (fem.)" cantada cantada cantata cantata chantée /ʃɑ̃te/ ? cantata cÎntadă cantada (Nu cantata)
audīre "to hear" ouvir < *ou-ir oír ? auzir ouir /wiʀ/ udir udire auzi ((audíre)) "approve"
vidēre "to see" ver ver < OSp veer vęure < vidĕre vezer voir /vwaʀ/ vesair vedere vedea bíere (Nu bídere)
pede "foot" pie pęu pied /pje/ (OF pié) pe piede piez pe(i) (Nu pede)
cōda "tail" < cauda ((cauda)) (cola) < *coda cua coa queue /kø/ cua coda coadă coa (Nu coda)
+c(a) ‹c› ‹ch› ʃ c ‹c› k
+g(a) ‹g› ‹j› ʒ ɟ ‹g› g, Lu #b
-c(aou)- ‹c›, ‹g› ‹g› ‹g›; ‹c›#! —; ‹iy› ? ‹c›, ‹g› ? ‹g› ɣ (Nu ‹c› k)
-g(aou)- —, ‹g› — (‹g›); ‹i› ? ‹g› ? — (Nu ‹g› ɣ)
capu "head, end" < caput cabo cabo cap ? chef /ʃɛf/ < OF chief chau capo cap cabu (Nu capu) "end of skein"
causa "thing" cousa cosa cosa ? chose chaussa cosa cauză "cause" ((cosa))
cambiāre "change, exchange" cambiar cambiar canviar ? changer /ʃɑ̃ʒe/ (s)tgamiar; SR (s)cumiar;PU (s-)chamger < ex-cambiāre cambiare (s)chimba < ex-cambiāre ((cammiare?))
vacca "cow" vaca vaca vaca ? vache /vaʃ/ vatga vacca vacă baca
gaudiu, gaudia "joy, enjoyment" (gọzo) < Sp gozo gaudi ? joie /ʒwa/ (giudida) < ? godére "to enjoy" < gaudēre ? godiu, gosu?; bodíre, godíre "to enjoy" < gaudēre
gallīna "hen" galinha gallina gallina ? OF geline giaglina gallina găină gadhina "young hen"
pacāre "to pay" pagar pagar pagar pagar payer /peje/ pajar pagare ? pacàre
amīcu "friend" amigo amigo amic amic ami /ami/ ami amico amic amicu
plāga "wound" chaga llaga plaga plaga plaie /plɛ/ plaja piaga plagă praga
lēgāle "loyal" leal leal lleial leiale loyal /lwajal/ ? (leale) < OF (loial) < Fr ((legale)) "legal"
+qu(a) ‹qu› kw; ‹qu›,‹c› < quà ‹cu›; ‹cu›,‹c› < quà ? ? ‹quc› k ? ‹qu› kw ‹p› ‹b›
+qu(e,i) ‹qu› k ‹qu› k ? ? ‹qu› k ? #‹ch› k; (C)‹qu› kw ? ‹b›, ‹ch› k
-qu ‹gu› g; ‹gu› gw < qua ? ? ‹iv› ? ‹gu› gw ‹p› ‹bb›
+gu(a) ‹gu› gw ‹gu› gw ‹gu› gw ? ‹gu› g ? ‹gu› gw ‹b› ‹b›
+gu(e,i) ‹gu› g ‹gu› g ‹gu› g ? ‹gu› g; ‹g›# ? ‹gu› gw g; dʒ(e,i) ‹b›
quattro "four" < quattuor quatro cuatro quatre ? quatre /katʀ/ quattre quattro patru bátor(o) < quattuor
quaerere "seek, ask" querer querer ? ? OF querre -curir (SR,ST) chiedere ceri chèrrere "want, need"
quid "what" que que que ? que /kǝ/, quoi /kwa/ tge /ce/ che ce chi
quōmodo "how" como como < OSp cuomo com ? comme /kɔm/ co come cum comènte?
aqua "water" água agua aigua ? eau /o/ < OF aive aua acqua apă abba
sequente "following" seguinte siguiente seguint ? suivant /sɥivɑ̃/ < OF sivant SR/ST/SM sequent (s.l.), PU/VA seguaint seguente ? sichíre "to follow" < sequīre (Lg sighíre??)
lingua "tongue" lingua lengua llengua ? langue /lɑ̃g/ lieunga lingua limbă limba
sangue "blood" sangue sangre < sanguine sang ? sang /sɑ̃/ sang sangue sânge sàmbine < sanguine
-p- ‹b› ‹b› ‹b›; ‹p›#! ‹v›; ‹f›#!; s.t. (ou)—; s.t. —(ou)[6] ? ‹p›, ‹v›[7] ‹p› ‹b› β (Nu ‹p›)
-b-, -v- ‹v› ‹bv› ‹v›; ‹u›+! ‹v›; ‹u›+!; (ou)—; —(ou) ? ‹v› ?
caballu "horse" cavalo caballo cavall ? cheval /ʃǝval/ chaval cavallo cal cabàdhu
vīvere "to live" viver vivir viure? viure? vivre /vivʀ/ viver vivere via bívere
#l ‹l› ‹l› ‹ll› ? ‹l› ? ‹l› ‹l›; —(ęi)[8] ?
-l- ‹l› ‹l› ? ‹l› ? ‹l› ? ?
-l+, -l+! ‹l› ‹l› ‹l› ? ‹u›; ‹l›# ‹l›; ‹gl›(iu) ‹l› ? ?
-ll- ‹l› ‹ll› j ‹ll› ? ‹l› ? ‹ll› ? ‹dh› ɖɖ
-ly- ‹lh› ‹j› x ‹ll› ‹lh› ‹ill›; ‹il›#! j ? ‹gli› ‹i› ‹tz› dz
bella "beautiful (fem.)" bela bella bella ? belle /bɛl/ bella bella ? bédha
caballu "horse" cavalo caballo cavall ? cheval /ʃǝval/ chaval cavallo cal cabàdha
istēlla "star" < stēlla estrẹla estrella estrella ? étoile /etwal/ < stēla staila stella stea istédhu < istēllu
sĕlla "seat, saddle" sela silla ? ? selle /sɛl/ sella sella şa sèdha
gallīna "hen" galinha gallina gallina ? OF geline giaglina gallina găină gadhína "young hen"
lacte "milk" leite leche llet lait lait latg latte lapte làte
līnu "flax, linen" linho lino li ? lin /lɛ̃/ glin lino in línu
lūna "moon" lua luna lluna ? lune /lyn/ glina luna lună lúna
colōre "color" cọr color color ? couleur /kulɶʀ/ colur colore culoare colòre, cabòri???
caelu "sky" ceu cielo cel ? ciel /sjɛl/ tschiel cielo cer chelu
sōlu "alone" só < sōla solo sol ? seul /sɶl/ sulet < sōlettu solo ? sólu, sou?
alteru "other" outro otro altre ? autre /otʀ/ auter altro alte ?
fīliu "son" filho hijo fill filh, fil (fils /fis/); OF fil figl figlio fiu ?
folia "leaf" folha hoja full < foliu fǫlha feuille /fɶj/ fegl < foliu foglia foaie ?
muliēre "woman" mulher mujer muller ? OF moillier PU/VA muglier moglie < mulier muiere mutzere
#clflpl ‹ch› ‹ll› ‹cl›;‹fl›;‹pl› ? ‹chi›;‹fi›;‹pi› ? ?
-cl-, -gl- ‹lh› ‹j› ‹ll› ‹lh› ‹ill›; ‹il›#! ? ‹cchi›; ‹gghi› ‹chi›, ‹che›; ‹ghi›, ‹ghe› ?
+bl- ‹lh› ‹j› ‹ll› ‹lh› ‹ill›; ‹il›#! ? ‹cchi›; ‹gghi› ‹chi›, ‹che›; ‹ghi›, ‹ghe› ?
clave "key" chave llave clau ? clef /kle/ clav chiave cheie ?
plēnu "full" cheio lleno ple ? plein /plɛ̃/ plain pieno plin ?
flamma "flame" chama llama ? ? flamme /flam/ flomma fiamma Ar flamă ?
oclu "eye" < oculu olho ojo ull ? oeil /ɶj/ egl occhio ochi ?
oricla "ear" < auricula orelha oreja orella ? oreille /ɔʀɛj/ ureglia orecchio ureche ?
blancu "white" branco blanco ? ? blanc /blɑ̃/ ? bianco ? ?
-n- ‹n› ‹n› ? ‹n› ? ‹n› ? ?
-n+, -n+! ‹n›; ‹m›#! ‹n› ‹n›; —#! ‹n›; ‹n›#!, —#! ‹n› ? ‹n› ? ?
-nn- ‹n› ‹ñ› ‹ny› ? ‹n› ? ‹nn› ? ?
-ny-, -gn- ‹nh› ‹ñ› ‹ny› ‹nh› ‹gn›; ‹in›#! ? ‹gn› ‹i› < ny; ‹mn› < gn ndz < ny; nn < gn
bonu "good" bom bueno bo ? bon /bɔ̃/ bun buono bun ?
pane "bread" pão pan pa ? pain /pɛ̃/ paun pane pâine ?
plēnu "full" cheio lleno ple ? plein /plɛ̃/ plain pieno plin ?
vīnu "wine" vinho vino vi ? vin /vɛ̃/ vin vino vin ?
lūna "moon" lua luna lluna ? lune /lyn/ glina luna lună ?
venīre "to come" vir venir venir ? venir /vǝniʀ/ vegnir venire veni ?
canna "reed" cana caña canya ? canne /kan/ ? canna (cană) "can" < Ger. < Lat. ?
annu "year" ano año any ? an /ɑ̃/ onn anno an ?
signu, signa "sign" senha seña ? ? seing /sɛ̃/ ensaina (PT segn) segno semn sinnu or sinna???
balneu "bath" banho baño bany ? bain /bɛ̃/ bogn bagno baie ?
vīnea "vineyard" vinha viña vinya ? vigne /viɲ/ ? vigna vie bindza?? (cf. bendzo < venio)
-ary- ‹eir› ‹er› ‹er› ‹er›,‹ier› ‹ier› ? ‹ai› ? ?
-ry- ‹ir›, ‹ur› ‹r› ? ? ‹ir› ? ‹i› ? ?
area "surface, threshing floor" eira era era ? aire /ɛʀ/ ? aia arie ?
operāriu "worker" obreiro obrero obrer ? ouvrier /uvʀie/ ? operaio ? ?
caldāria "cauldron" caldeira caldera caldera ? chaudière /ʃodjɛʀ/ ? caldaia căldare ?
coriu "leather" coiro, couro cuero cuir ? cuir /kɥiʀ/ (tgirom; SR curom) < ? cuoio ? ?
(sal) muria "brine, pickle" salmoira, salmoura salmuera salmorra ? saumure /soɛʀ/ < *salmuire ? moia saramură ?
+c(e,i) ‹c› s ‹c› θ ‹c› s ‹c› s ‹c› s ‹c› tʃ ‹c› tʃ ‹ch› k
+c(e,i)+! ‹z› s ‹z› θ ‹ç› s ? ‹s› ? NA NA? ?
-c(e,i) ‹z› z ‹c› ? ‹is› ? ‹c› k ?
-c(e,i)+! ‹z› ‹z› ‹u› ? ‹î›; ‹ix›#! ? NA NA ?
centu "hundred" cento ciento cent ? cent tschient cento ? ?
cēra "wax" cera cera cera ? cire tschaira cera ceară ?
caelu "sky" ceu cielo cel ? ciel tschiel cielo cer chelu
dulce "sweet" doce dulce dolç ? douce dultsch dolce dulce ?
vicīnu "neighbor" vezinho vecino veí ? voisin vischin vicino vecin ?
placēre "pleasure" prazer placer plaer ? plaisir plaschair piacere plăcere ?
vōce "voice" voz voz veu ? voix vusch voce voce ?
dece "ten" dez diez deu ? dix diesch dieci zece ?
pace "peace" paz paz pau ? paix pasch pace pace ?
+g(e,i) ‹g› ʒ ‹y› < #g(éí); — < #g(èì); ‹g› x ‹gj› ʒ, ‹ig›# dʒ ? ‹gge› ʒ ‹ggi› dʒ ? g
-g(e,i) ‹gg›, —
-g(e,i)+! ‹i› ‹iy› ? ? ‹i› ? ? ? ?
rēgīna "queen" rainha reina < reína reina ? reine < reíne regina (VA raïna) reina regină ?
lēge "law" lei ley llei ? loi (lescha; PT/VA ledscha) < ? legge lege ?
digitu "finger" dedo dedo dit ? doigt dwa < OF deit det dito deget ?
sagitta "arrow" seta saeta sageta (semi-learned?) ? ? ? saetta săgeată ?
vīgintī > *vigintī "twenty" vinte veinte vint ? vingt < OF vint ventg venti ? ?
frigidu "cold" (> PIW fréjedo,fréjdo) frio frío < *fríjedo < *fréjedo fred < *fréjdo ? froid fraid freddo frig ?
cogitāre > *cugitāre "to think, take care" cuidar cuidar cuidar ? OF cuidier SR quitar ((cogitare)) cugeta ?
fūgīre "to flee" fugir huír fugir ? fuir fugir fuggire fugi ?
magis "more, but" mais "more", mas "but" más "more", mas "but" més ? mais ma "but", "mai" never ma "but", mai "never" mai ?
magistru "master, teacher" mestre maestro, maestre mestre ? maître maister maestro (maestru) < It. ?
j-, dy-, -gy- #‹j›; ‹j›, ‹i› ‹y›; ‹j› < #j(u,o); (e,i)—; (e,i)— ‹tj› dʒ; ‹ig›#! tʃ ‹j›; ‹i›#! ‹i› ? ‹ggi› dʒ ? <j>, <dz>
j-, -dy-, -gy- +! ‹j›; ‹i› ‹y›; (e,i)— ‹tj› dʒ; ‹ig›# tʃ ? ‹i› ? ‹ggi› dʒ ? ?
jam "already" ja ya ja ? (dé-)ja gia gia (deja) < Fr. ?
jen(u)āriu, jan(u)āriu "January" janeiro enero gener ? janvier schaner gennaio gerar zannarju
jacēre "to lie" jazer yacer (OSp azer) jeure ? gésir giaschair giacere zăcea ((giachire??))
gemma "bud, gem" gema yema "tip of finger" ((gemma)) ? gemme ? gemma (gemă) < Fr. ghema?
gingīva, gincīva "gum" gengiva encía geniva ? gencive ? gengiva gingie ghinghía (Nu ghinghíba?)
jocu "game" jọgo juego joc ? jeu gieu, SR giug giuoco joc zocu?
juvene "young" jovem joven jove ? jeune giuven giovane june ((zòbanu))
deorsum "down" ? OSp (a)yuso ? ? OF jus giu giù jos jossu, zossu
maju "May" maio mayo maig ? mai matg maggio mai maju
hodie "today" hoje hoy (a)vui ? -hui oz oggi azi oje, oe?
mediu "middle" meio ((medio)) mig ? mi mez mezzo miez mesu? mezu?
radiu "spoke, ray, radius" raio rayo raig ? rayon < radiōne ? raggio, razzo rază < radia ratza
hordeu "barley" ? ? (ordi) ? orge ierdi (PT üerdi) orzo orz ?
corrigia "strap, belt" correia correa corretja ? courroie ? coreggia curea ?
-ty- (often fell in with -tty-) ‹z› ‹z› ? ? ‹is› ? ‹zz› ? ?
+ty-, +cy- ‹ç› ‹z› ? ? ‹c›, (u)‹ss›, ‹s›# ? ‹ci› < cy; ‹z› < ty ? ?
-tty-, -(c)cy-, -cty-, -pty- ‹ç› ‹z› ‹ç› ? ‹c›, ‹ss›, ‹s›# ? ‹cci› ? ?
puteu "well" poço pozo pou ? puits ? pozzo puţ putzu?
trīstitia "sadness" tristeza tristeza tristesa ? tristesse ? tristezza tristeţe ?
martiu "March" março marzo < OSp março març ? mars < OF marz mars (ST/PT/VA/ marz) marzo marţ martzu
spērāntia "hope" esperança esperanza < OSp esperança esperança ? espérance speranza speranza (speranţa) < It. ?
altiāre "lift" alçar alzar < OSp alçar alçar ? hausser auzar alzare în-ălţá altzare
calciāre "put on" calçar calzar < OSp calçar calçar ? chausser chalzer < calciārium calciare, calzare în-călţá ?
uncia "ounce, inch" onça onza ? ? once unza oncia ? untza
pettia "piece" peça pieza peça ? pièce ? pezzo < pettiu ? peta (Nu peθa) "meat"
facia, facie "face" face haz faç ? face fatscha faccia faţă fatza
faciō "I do" faço (hago) < facō ? ? fais fatsch faccio ? fatzu?
bra(c)chiu "arm" braço brazo braç ? bras < OF braz bratsch braccio braţ bratzu
captiāre "hunt, catch" caçar cazar caçar? ? chasser < OF chacier chatschar cacciare, cazzare a-căţá catzare?
directiāre "straighten, prepare" a-dereçar a-derezar ? ? dresser < OF drecier ? d(i)rizzare ? deretare?
-ct- ‹it› ‹ch› tʃ ‹it› ‹itch› ‹it› ? ‹tt› ‹pt› ?
factum "made" feito hecho ? ? fait fatg fatto fapt?? fatu
octō "eight" oito ocho vuit ? huit otg (PU och, VA ot) otto opt oto
lacte "milk" leite leche llet lait lait latg (PU, VA lat) latte lapte late
-sy- ‹ij› (a > e)‹s› ? ‹isiz› ‹is› ? ‹ci› ? ?
-ssy-, -scy-, -sty- (ae)‹ix›; ‹x› ‹j› ‹ix› ? ‹iss›, ‹is›# ? ‹sci› ? ?
-sc(e,i) (a > e)‹ix›, ‹sc› ‹c› ‹éix› < asc, ęsc; ‹èix› < ẹsc; ‹ix› ? ‹iss›, ‹is›# ? ‹sc› ? ?
-x- (a > e)‹ix› (a > e)‹j› ? ‹is› ‹iss›, ‹is›# ? ‹ss› ? ‹ss›
axe "axle, axis" eixo < axu eje eix ? essieu < axellu ischigl < axellu (PU/VA aschigl) asse (osie) < Slavic asse
(dē+)laxāre "to loosen, to let" deixar dejar deixar ? laisser laschar lassare "loosen", lasciare "let" lăsá lassare
exāmen "swarm" enxame enjambre eixam ? essaim -tgam sciame ? ?
sex "six" seis seis sis ? six sis sei şase ses
pisce "fish" peixe pez peix ? OF pois pesch pesce peşte pische
cognoscere "to know" conhecer conocer conèixer ? connaître (connaissons < cognoscēmus) conuscher conoscere cunoaşte connòschere
caseu "cheese" queijo queso ? ? ? chaschiel < casiellum cacio caş casu
basiāre "to kiss" beijar besar ? baizar baiser bitschar (VA bütschar) baciare (bezeá) < Fr basare
bassiāre "to lower" baixar bajar baixar ? baisser s-bassar < bassāre ? ? ?
fasci "bundle" feixe haz feixe ? faix fasch fascio ? ?
fascia "bundle of sticks, strip" faixa (faja, borrowed?) faixa ? OF faisse ? fascia faşă "bud, bandage" fasca?
asciata "hoe" enxada azada aixada ? ? ? ? ? ?
angustia "anguish" ((angústia)) ((angustia)) angoixa ? angoisse ? angoscia ? ((angustía))
ipse, ipsum "that" (orig. "self") esse, isso ese, eso eixe ? ? (?sez) < ? esso ? ?
gypsum "plaster" gesso yeso guix ? ((gypse)) ? gesso ? ?
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
-zzzz- ‹ij› (a > e)‹s› ? ‹isiz› ‹is› ? ‹ci› ? ?
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?
? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?

In Spanish, (Vj) means that a j appeared before a consonant, but was later absorbed by the preceding vowel: aj or ej → ‹e›, ij → ‹i›, oj or uj → ‹ue›.


Demonstrative pronouns and locative demonstratives

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Demonstratives
Demonstrative pronouns and locative demonstratives
Proto-Romance Portuguese Spanish Catalan French Italian Romanian
hoc ho OF o o (fem. acc.)
ecce-hoc / acce-hoc açò ce < OF ço
eccu-hoc / accu-hoc
hīc, a-hic ací (var. of aíci)
ecce-hīc / acce-hīc ací ci, ici
eccu-hīc / accu-hīc aqui aquí aquí qui aíci
hāc
ecce-hāc / acce-hāc - ça
eccu-hāc / accu-hāc acá
illīc, a-illīc ali allí allí li
ecce-illīc / acce-illīc
eccu-illīc / accu-illīc
illāc la allá allà, -llà la la la
ecce-illāc / acce-illāc
eccu-illāc / accu-illāc
ille, a-ille ele él, el il, OF li egli el, ăl-a
ecce-ille / acce-ille OF cil
eccu-ille / accu-ille aquel
illum o, lo lo lo le il, lo -l, îl
ecce-illum / acce-illum OF cel acel(a)
eccu-illum / accu-illum aquell quello
illud lo
ecce-illud / acce-illud
eccu-illud / accu-illud aquilo aquello
iste, a-iste este este ăst-a
ecce-iste / acce-iste OF cist
eccu-iste / accu-iste
istum
ecce-istum / acce-istum ce/cet, OF cest acest(a)
eccu-istum / accu-istum aquest questo
istud isto esto
ecce-istud / acce-istud
eccu-istud / accu-istud
ipse esse ese
ecce-ipse / acce-ipse
eccu-ipse / accu-ipse
ipsum es, so
ecce-ipsum / acce-ipsum
eccu-ipsum / accu-ipsum aqueix
*ipsud isso isto
ecce-*ipsud / acce-*ipsud
eccu-*ipsud / accu-*ipsud
sīc sim si si si şi
a-sīc (eccum-sīc) assim así així ainsi aşa
ibi, a-ibi ahí, OSp y hi y vi, ivi
inde, a-inde OSp end(e) en en ne
ubi OSp o OIt ove
unde, a-unde onde, aonde OSp ond(e) on unde
de-ubi OSp do d'où dove
de-unde donde donde
  1. ^ Pre-Catalan /dz/~/z/ (from Vulgar Latin -TY-, -C(E,I), and -D-) split at a very early time (before the split of Catalan from Occitan, but after the loss of final /e/, /o/, /i/), with /dz/~/z/ not before a vowel becoming /w/, spelled ‹u›.
  2. ^ "Oldest French" (OOF) still maintained the original Western Romance distinction between palatalized /ś/ (OOF /s/ and probably still palatalized, i.e. [sʲ]) and non-palatalized /s/ (OOF /ṣ/, i.e. apicoalveolar). OOF may also have still had a distinction corresponding to Western Romance /ttś/ and /tś/; Adams 1975 suggests that the spelling ‹tc› represents the former, and ‹c› the latter. Evidence concerning OOF coronal sounds is very sparse, mostly confined to the 28-line St Eulalia poem, and ‹tc› only occurs once (manatce "menace" < minacia). In general, St Eulalia spelling is very consistent and corresponds well to etymological distinctions. OOF apparently had no /z/~/ẓ/ distinction, and OOF /dz/~/z/ > OF /z/ while OOF /ddz/ > OF /dz/.
  3. ^ a b c Old French (OF) ‹ii› actually represents /ij/, i.e. an /i/ that combines with the previous vowel to form a diphthong plus a /j/ that keeps its identity. OF also had ‹i› /i/ between vowels, forming part of a diphthong. In Modern French, ‹y› corresponds to OF ‹ii›, pronounced as /j/ with changes to the previous vowel normally triggered by written ‹ii›. Modern ‹ill› is also /j/ but with no such vowel changes. Hence ‹paye› /pɛj/ "(he) pays", ‹paille› /paj/, ‹paie› /pɛ/, ‹pays› /pɛi/ "country".
  4. ^ The form given is Rumantsch Grischun, a combined, standardized form of Swiss Rhaeto-Romance, based largely on Sursilvan, one of the main dialects. Each of the five main dialects has its own phonology and standard spelling, and there are few words with the same spelling across all of these dialects. The largest difference is in the vowels. However, when one or more of the dialects has a different outcome for the particular consonant which the word is illustrating, the alternative outcome or outcomes are given, identified as follows: SR = Sursilvan, ST = Sutsilvan, SM = Surmiran, PU = Puter, VA = Vallader. In the same alternative outcome appears in more than one dialect, only the form of the first-mentioned dialect in the above list of dialects that exemplifies the outcome is given.
  5. ^ The form given is Rumantsch Grischun, a combined, standardized form of Swiss Rhaeto-Romance, based largely on Sursilvan, one of the main dialects. Each of the five main dialects has its own phonology and standard spelling, and there are few words with the same spelling across all of these dialects. The largest difference is in the vowels. However, when one or more of the dialects has a different outcome for the particular consonant which the word is illustrating, the alternative outcome or outcomes are given, identified as follows: SR = Sursilvan, ST = Sutsilvan, SM = Surmiran, PU = Puter, VA = Vallader. In the same alternative outcome appears in more than one dialect, only the form of the first-mentioned dialect in the above list of dialects that exemplifies the outcome is given.
  6. ^ savon < sapōne but su < OF sëu < sapūtu; loup lu, OF leu < lupu but louve < lupa; paon < pavōne; peur < pavōre; Noël < novellu; clou < OF clo < clāvu; OF reüser < refūsare; OF nue < nūba.
  7. ^ Possibly words with ‹v› from a nearby dialect with lenition? Florence is very near the La Spezia-Rimini line.
  8. ^ yepure "hare" < *ʎepure < liepure < lepore; lemn < lĭgnu (no i develops).