The Principate

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27 BC–68 AD: Julio-Claudian dynasty

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Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Augustus
IMPERATOR CAESAR DIVI FILIVS AVGVSTVS
September 23, 63 BC, Rome, Italia Great-nephew and adopted son of Julius Caesar; became de facto emperor as a result of the 'first settlement' between himself and the Roman Senate. January 16, 27 BC – August 19, 14 AD 40 years, 7 months and 3 days August 19, 14 AD (aged 75)
Natural causes
  Tiberius
TIBERIVS CAESAR DIVI AVGVSTI FILIVS AVGVSTVS
November 16, 42 BC, Rome, Italia Natural son of Livia Drusilla, Augustus' third wife, by a previous marriage; stepbrother and third husband of Julia the Elder, daughter of Augustus; adopted by Augustus as his son and heir. September 18, 14 AD – March 16, 37 AD 22 years, 5 months and 27 days March 16, 37 AD (aged 77)
Probably natural causes, possibly assassinated by Caligula or praetorian prefect Naevius Sutorius Macro
  Caligula
GAIVS IVLIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS
August 31, 12 AD, Antium, Italia Great-nephew and adoptive grandson of Tiberius; natural son of Germanicus; great-grandson of Augustus. March 18, 37 AD – January 24, 41 AD 3 years, 10 months and 6 days January 24, 41 AD (aged 28)
Assassinated in a conspiracy involving senators and Praetorian Guards.
  Claudius
TIBERIVS CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS
August 1, 10 BC, Lugdunum, Gallia Lugdunensis Uncle of Caligula; brother of Germanicus; nephew of Tiberius; great-nephew and step-grandson of Augustus; proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard. January 25/26, 41 AD – October 13, 54 AD 13 years, 8 months and 18/19 days October 13, 54 AD (aged 63)
Probably poisoned by his wife Agrippina the Younger, in favour of her son Nero, possibly natural causes.
  Nero
NERO CLAVDIVS CAESAR AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS
December 15, 37 AD, Antium, Italia Great-nephew, stepson, son-in-law and adopted son of Claudius; nephew of Caligula; great-great-nephew of Tiberius; grandson of Germanicus; great-great-grandson of Augustus October 13, 54 AD – June 9, 68 AD 13 years, 7 months and 27 days June 9, 68 AD (aged 30)
Committed suicide after being declared a public enemy by the Senate.

68–96: Year of the Four Emperors and Flavian dynasty

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Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Galba
IMPERATOR SERVIVS GALBA CAESAR AVGVSTVS
December 24, 3 BC, Near Terrancilium, Italia Seized power after Nero's suicide, with support of the Praetorian Guard June 8, 68 AD – January 15, 69 AD 7 months and 7 days January 15, 69 AD (aged 72)
Murdered by Praetorian Guard in coup led by Otho
  Otho
IMPERATOR MARCVS SALVIVS OTHO CAESAR AVGUSTVS
April 28, 32 AD, Ferentinum, Italia Appointed by Praetorian Guard January 15, 69 AD – April 16, 69 AD 3 months and 1 day April 16, 69 AD (aged 36)
Committed suicide after losing Battle of Bedriacum to Vitellius
  Vitellius
IMPERATOR AVLVS VITELLIVS GERMANICVS AVGVSTVS
September 24, 15 AD, Rome, Italia Seized power with support of German Legions (in opposition to Galba/Otho) April 17, 69 AD – December 20, 69 AD 8 months and 3 days December 20, 69 AD (aged 54)
Murdered by Vespasian's troops
  Vespasian
IMPERATOR TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS
November 17, 9 AD, Falacrine, Italia Seized power with the support of the eastern Legions (in opposition to Marcillinus) December 21, 69 AD – June 24, 79 AD 9 years, 6 months and 3 days June 24, 79 AD (aged 69)
Natural causes
  Titus
IMPERATOR TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR VESPASIANVS AVGVSTVS
December 30, 39 AD, Rome, Italia Son of Vespasian June 24, 79 AD – September 13, 81 AD 2 years, 2 months and 20 days September 13, 81 AD (aged 41)
Natural causes (fever)
  Domitian
IMPERATOR TITVS FLAVIVS CAESAR DOMITIANVS AVGVSTVS GERMANICVS
October 24, 51 AD, Rome, Italia Brother of Titus; son of Vespasian September 14, 81 AD – September 18, 96 AD 15 years and 4 days September 18, 96 AD (aged 44)
Assassinated by court officials

96–192: Nerva–Antonine dynasty

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Note: all dates AD hereafter.

Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Nerva
IMPERATOR MARCVS COCCEIVS NERVA CAESAR AVGVSTVS
November 8, 30, Narni, Italia Appointed by the Senate. First of the “Five Good Emperors”. September 18, 96 – January 27, 98 1 year, 4 months and 9 days January 27, 98 (aged 67)
Natural causes
  Trajan
IMPERATOR CAESAR NERVA TRAIANVS DIVI NERVAE FILIVS AVGVSTVS
September 18, 53, Italica, Hispania Baetica Adopted son and heir of Nerva. His reign marked the geographical peak of the empire January 28, 98 – August 7, 117 19 years, 6 months and 10 days August 7, 117 (aged 63)
Natural causes
  Hadrian
IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS AELIVS TRAIANVS HADRIANVS AVGVSTVS
January 24, 76, Italica, Hispania Baetica (or Rome) Adopted son and heir of Trajan August 11, 117 – July 10, 138 20 years, 10 months and 30 days July 10, 138 (aged 62)
Natural causes
  Antoninus Pius
IMPERATOR CAESAR TITVS AELIVS HADRIANVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS PIVS
September 19, 86, Near Lanuvium, Italia Adopted son and heir of Hadrian July 10, 138 – March 7, 161 22 years, 6 months and 28 days March 7, 161 (aged 74)
Natural causes
  Lucius Verus
IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS AVRELIVS VERVS AVGVSTVS
December 15, 130, Rome Adopted son and heir of Antoninus Pius and son-in-law of Marcus Aurelius; Co-emperor with Marcus Aurelius until his death March 7, 161 – ? March 169 8 years March 169 (aged 39)
Natural causes (Plague)
  Marcus Aurelius
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS
April 26, 121, Rome Adopted son, son-in-law and heir of Antoninus Pius; Co-emperor with Lucius Verus until 169. Last of the “Five Good Emperors March 7, 161 – March 17, 180 19 years and 10 days March 17, 180 (aged 58)
Natural causes
  Commodus
IMPERATOR CAESAR LUCIVS AELIVS AVRELIVS COMMODVS AVGVSTVS
August 31, 161, Lanuvium, Italia Natural son of Marcus Aurelius; joint emperor from 177 March 17, 180 – December 31, 192 3 years as joint emperor,
12 years as sole emperor
December 31, 192 (aged 31)

Assassinated in palace, strangled in his bath

193–235: Year of the Five Emperors and Severan dynasty

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Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Pertinax
IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS HELVIVS PERTINAX AVGVSTVS
August 1, 126, Alba, Italia Proclaimed emperor by Praetorian Guard January 1, 193 – March 28, 193 2 months and 27 days (86 days) March 28, 193 (aged 66)
Murdered by Praetorian Guard
 
Didius Julianus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS DIDIVS SEVERVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS
133 or 137, Milan, Italia Won auction held by the Praetorian Guard for the position of emperor March 28, 193 – June 1, 193 2 months and 4 days (65 days) June 1, 193 (aged 56 or 60)
Executed on orders of the Senate
  Septimius Severus
IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS SEPTIMIVS SEVERVS EVSEBES PERTINAX AVGVSTVS
April 11, 145, Leptis Magna, Libya Seized power with support of Pannonian legions[a] April 9, 193 – February 4, 211 17 years, 9 months and 26 days February 4, 211 (aged 65)
Natural causes
  Caracalla
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS
April 4, 188, Lugdunum, Gallia Lugdunensis Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus from 198; with Severus and Geta from 209 until February 211; co-emperor with Geta until December 211 February 4, 211 – April 8, 217 13 years as joint emperor
10 months with Geta
6 years as sole emperor
April 8, 217 (aged 29)
Murdered by a soldier as part of a conspiracy involving Macrinus
  Geta
IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS SEPTIMIVS CETA AVGVSTUS
March 7, 189, Rome Son of Septimius Severus; co-emperor with Severus and Caracalla from 209 until February 211; co-emperor with Caracalla until December 211 February 4, 211 – December 26, 211 2 years as joint emperor
10 months with Caracalla
December 19, 211 (aged 22)
Murdered on the orders of Caracalla
    Macrinus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS OPELLIVS SEVERVS MACRINVS AVGVSTVS

with
Diadumenian

IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS OPELLIVS ANTONINVS DIADVMENIANVS AVGVSTVS

c. 165, Caesarea, Mauretania Praetorian Prefect to Caracalla, probably conspired to have Caracalla murdered and proclaimed himself emperor after Caracalla's death; made his son Diadumenian (born on 14 September 208) co-emperor in May 218 April 11, 217 – June 8, 218 1 year, 1 month and 28 days June 8, 218 (aged 53)
Both executed in favour of Elagabalus
  Elagabalus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS ANTONINVS AVGVSTVS
c. 204, Emesa, Syria Grandnephew of Septimius Severus, first cousin once removed and alleged illegitimate son of Caracalla; proclaimed emperor by Syrian legions June 8, 218 – March 11, 222 3 years, 9 months and 3 days March 11, 222 (aged 18)
Murdered by Praetorian Guard
  Severus Alexander
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS SEVERVS ALEXANDER AVGVSTVS
c. 208, Arca Caesarea, Syria Grandnephew of Septimius Severus, cousin and adoptive heir of Elagabalus March 13, 222 – March 18, 235 13 years and 5 days March 18, 235 (aged 27)
Murdered by the army

235–285: Gordian dynasty and Crisis of the Third Century

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Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Maximinus Thrax
IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS IVLIVS VERVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVS
c. 173, Thrace or Moesia Proclaimed emperor by Germanic legions after the murder of Severus Alexander March 20, 235 – June 238 3 years, 3 months June 238 (aged 65)
Assassinated by his men during the siege of Aquileia
  Gordian I
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS
c. 159, Phrygia? Proclaimed emperor, whilst Pro-consul in Africa, during a revolt against Maximinus. Ruled jointly with his son Gordian II, and in opposition to Maximinus. Technically a usurper, but retrospectively legitimised by the accession of Gordian III March 22, 238 – April 12, 238 21 days April 238 (aged 79)
Committed suicide upon hearing of the death of Gordian II.
 
Gordian II
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS SEMPRONIANVS ROMANVS AFRICANVS AVGVSTVS
c. 192, ? Proclaimed emperor, alongside father Gordian I, in opposition to Maximinus by act of the Senate. March 22, 238 – April 12, 238 21 days April 238 (aged 46)
Killed during the Battle of Carthage, fighting a pro-Maximinus army
  Pupienus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS CLODIVS PVPIENVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS
c. 165 or 170 Proclaimed joint emperor with Balbinus by the Senate in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Balbinus. April 22, 238 – July 29, 238 3 months and 7 days July 29, 238 (aged 68 or 73)
Assassinated by the Praetorian Guard
  Balbinus
IMPERATOR CAESAR DECIMVS CAELIVS CALVINVS BALBINVS PIVS AVGVSTVS
178 Proclaimed joint emperor with Pupienus by the Senate after death of Gordian I and II, in opposition to Maximinus; later co-emperor with Pupienus and Gordian III April 22, 238 – July 29, 238 3 months and 7 days July 29, 238 (aged 60)
Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
  Gordian III
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANTONIVS CORDIANVS PIVS AVGVSTVS
January 20, 225, Rome Proclaimed emperor by supporters of Gordian I and II, then by the Senate; joint emperor with Pupienus and Balbinus until July 238; grandson and nephew of Gordian I and II, respectively April 22, 238 – February 11, 244 5 years, 9 months and 20 days February 11, 244 (aged 19)
Unknown; possibly murdered on orders of Philip I
    Philip the Arab
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS PHILIPPVS AVGVSTVS

with

Philip II

IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS IVLIVS SEVERVS PHILLIPVS AVGVSTVS

c. 204, Shahba, Syria Praetorian Prefect to Gordian III, took power after his death; made his son Philip II (born 237) co-emperor in summer 247 February 244 – September/October 249 5 years September/October 249 (aged 45)
Killed in the Battle of Verona by Decius, Philip II murdered by the Praetorian Guard
    Decius
IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS MESSIVS QVINTVS TRAIANVS DECIVS AVGVSTVS

with

Herennius Etruscus

IMPERATOR CAESAR QVINTVS HERENNIVS ETRVSCVS MESSIVS DECIVS AVGVSTVS

c. 201, Budalia, Pannonia Inferior Governor under Philip the Arab; proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions then defeating and killing Philip in the Battle of Verona; made his son Herennius Etruscus (born 227) co-emperor in early 251 September/ October 249 – June 251 2 years June 251 (aged 50)
Both killed in the Battle of Abrittus fighting against the Goths
 
Hostilian
IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS VALENS HOSTILIANVS MESSIVS QVINTVS AVGVSTVS
Sirmium Son of Decius, accepted as heir by the Senate June 251 – late 251 4–5 months September/October 251 (aged 21)
Natural causes (plague)
 
 
Trebonianus Gallus
IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS AFINIVS TREBONIANVS GALLVS AVGVSTVS

with

Volusianus

IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS VIBIVS VOLVSIANVS AVGVSTVS

206, Italia Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Decius's death (and in opposition to Hostilian); made his son Volusianus co-emperor in late 251. June 251 – August 253 2 years August 253 (aged 47)
Assassinated by their own troops, in favour of Aemilian
  Aemilian
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AEMILIVS AEMILIANVS AVGVSTVS
c. 207 or 213 Africa Governor of Moesia Superior, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after defeating the Goths; accepted as emperor after death of Gallus August 253 – October 253 2 months September/October 253 (aged 40 or 46)
Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Valerian
 
Valerian
IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS VALERIANVS AVGVSTVS
c. 195 Governor of Noricum and Raetia, proclaimed emperor by Rhine legions after death of Gallus; accepted as emperor after death of Aemilian October 253 – 260 7 years After 260 (aged at least 65)
Captured in Battle of Edessa against Persians, died in captivity
    Gallienus
IMPERATOR CAESAR PVBLIVS LICINIVS EGNATIVS GALLIENVS AVGVSTVS

with

Saloninus

IMPERATOR CAESAR CORNELIVS LICINIVS SALONINVS VALERIANVS PIVS FELIX INVICTVS AVGVSTVS

218 Son of Valerian, made co-emperor in 253; his son Saloninus (born c. 242) is very briefly co-emperor in c. July 260 before assassination by Postumus. October 253 – September 268 15 years September 268 (aged 50)
Murdered at Aquileia by his own commanders.
 
Claudius Gothicus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS CLAVDIVS AVGVSTVS
May 10, 210, Sirmium Victorious general at Battle of Naissus, seized power after Gallienus's death September 268 – January 270 1 year, 4 months January 270 (aged 60)
Natural causes (plague)
 
Quintillus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CLAVDIVS QVINTILLVS AVGVSTVS
c.210, Sirmium Brother of Claudius II, seized power after his death January 270 – September(?) 270 Unknown 270 (aged around 60)
Unclear; possibly suicide or murder
 
Aurelian
IMPERATOR CAESAR LVCIVS DOMITIVS AVRELIANVS AVGVSTVS
September 9, 214/215, Sirmium Proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions after Claudius II's death, in opposition to Quintillus September(?) 270 – September 275 5 years September 275 (aged 60-61)
Assassinated by Praetorian Guard
  Ulpia Severina
VLPIA SEVERINA PIA AVGVSTA
Unknown Wife of Aurelian, there is evidence that she ruled in her own right during the interregnum between Aurelian's death and the election of Tacitus.[1][2] September 275 Briefly Unknown
  Tacitus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS CLAVDIVS TACITVS AVGVSTVS
c. 200, Interamna Nahars, Italia Elected by the Senate to replace Aurelian, after a short interregnum September 25, 275 – June 276 9 months June 276 (aged 76)
Natural causes (possibly assassinated)
 
Florianus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS ANNIVS FLORIANVS AVGVSTVS
? Brother of Tacitus, elected by the army in the west to replace him June 276 – September? 276 3 months September? 276 (aged ?)
Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Probus
  Probus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS PROBVS AVGVSTVS
232, Sirmium Governor of the eastern provinces, proclaimed emperor by Danubian legions in opposition to Florian September? 276 – September/ October 282 6 years September/ October 282 (aged 50)
Assassinated by his own troops, in favour of Carus
  Carus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARVS AVGVSTVS
c. 230, Narbo, Gallia Narbonensis Praetorian Prefect to Probus; seized power either before or after Probus was murdered; made his son Carinus co-emperor in early 283 September/ October 282 – late July/ early August 283 10–11 months Late July/August 283 (aged 61)
Probably natural causes (Possibly killed by lightning)
 
Carinus
CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS CARINVS AVGVSTVS
? Son of Carus, ruled shortly with him (from early 283) as co-emperor and then in his own right with his brother Numerian Late July/early August 283 – 285 2 years 285 (aged ?)
Probably died in battle against Diocletian
 
Numerian
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS NVMERIVS NVMERIANVS AVGVSTVS
? Son of Carus, succeeded him jointly with his brother Carinus Late July/early August 283 – 284? 1 year 284 (aged ?)
Unclear; possibly assassinated

The Dominate

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284–364: Tetrarchy and Constantinian dynasty

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Note: To maintain control and improve administration, various schemes to divide the work of the Roman Emperor by sharing it between individuals were tried after 285. The "Tetrarchy" proclaimed by Diocletian in 293 split the empire into two halves each to be ruled separately by two emperors, a senior "Augustus", and a junior "Caesar".

Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Diocletian
IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS DIOCLETIANVS AVGVSTVS


(EAST and WEST)

then, after 286

(EAST)

c. December 22, 244, Salona Proclaimed emperor by army after death of Numerian, and in opposition to Carinus; adopted Maximian as senior co-emperor in 286 November 20, 284 – May 1, 305 20 years, 5 months and 11 days 3 December 311 (aged 67)
Abdicated; died of natural causes in Aspalatos
  Maximian
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS HERCVLIVS AVGVSTVS


(WEST)

c. 250, near Sirmium, Pannonia Adopted as senior co-emperor ('Augustus') in the west by Diocletian in 286 April 1, 286 – May 1, 305 19 years and 1 month 310 (aged 60)
Abdicated with Diocletian; twice tried to regain throne with, and then from Maxentius; captured by Constantine I and committed suicide at his behest
  Galerius
IMPERATOR CAESAR GAIVS GALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMIANVS AVGVSTVS


(EAST)

c. 250, Felix Romuliana, Moesia Superior Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Diocletian in 293. Also son-in-law of Diocletian. May 1, 305 – May 311 6 years 311 (aged 61)
Natural causes
  Constantius Chlorus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS FLAVIVS VALERIVS CONSTANTIVS HERCVLIVS AVGVSTVS


(WEST)

March 31, c. 250, Dardania, Moesia Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Maximian in 293 May 1, 305 – July 25, 306 1 year, 2 months and 24 days 306 (aged 56)
Natural causes
 
Valerius Severus
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS SEVERVS AVGVSTVS


(WEST)

? Adopted as junior co-emperor ('Caesar') and heir by Constantius Chlorus in 305; succeeded as Augustus in 306; opposed by Maxentius and Constantine I Summer 306 – March/ April 307 1 year September 16, 307 (aged ?)
Captured by Maxentius and forced to commit suicide (or murdered)
  Constantine the Great
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS AVRELIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS


(WEST)

then, after 324

(EAST and WEST)

February 27, c. 272, Naissus, Moesia Superior Son of Constantius I Chlorus, proclaimed emperor by his father's troops; accepted as Caesar (west) by Galerius in 306; promoted to Augustus (west) in 307 by Maximian after death of Severus II; refused relegation to Caesar in 309 July 25, 306 – May 22, 337 30 years, 9 months and 27 days May 22, 337 (aged 65)
Natural causes
  Maxentius
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS AVRELIVS VALERIVS MAXENTIVS AVGVSTVS


(WEST)

c. 276 Son of Maximian, seized power in 306 after death of Constantius I Chlorus, in opposition to Severus and Constantine I; made Caesar (west) by Maximian in 307 after the death of Severus October 28, 306 – October 28, 312 6 years October 28, 312 (aged 36)
Died at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, against Constantine I
 
 
 
Licinius
IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS VALERIVS LICINIANVS LICINIVS AVGVSTVS


(EAST)

with

Valerius Valens

IMPERATOR CAESAR AVRELIVS VALERIVS VALENS AVGVSTVS

and

Martinian

IMPERATOR CAESAR SEXTVS MARCIVS MARTININANVS AVGVSTVS

c. 263, Felix Romuliana, Moesia Superior Son-in-law of Constantius Chlorus, appointed Augustus in the west by Galerius in 308, in opposition to Maxentius; became Augustus in the east in 311 after the death of Galerius (shared with Maximinus II); defeated Maximinus II in civil war to become sole eastern Augustus in 313; appointed Valerius Valens in 317, and Martinian in 324 as western Augustus, in opposition to Constantine, both being executed within weeks. November 11, 308 – September 18, 324 15 years, 10 months and 7 days 325 (aged 61/62)
Defeated in civil war against Constantine I in 324 and captured; executed on the orders of Constantine the next year
  Maximinus II
IMPERATOR CAESAR CAIVS CALERIVS VALERIVS MAXIMINVS AVGVSTVS


(EAST)

November 20, c. 270, Dacia Aureliana Nephew of Galerius, adopted as Caesar and his heir in 305; succeeded as Augustus (shared with Licinius I) in 311 May 1, 311 – July/August 313 2 years July/August 313 (aged 42)
Defeated in civil war against Licinius; probably committed suicide thereafter
  Constantine II
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS


(WEST)

316, Arelate, Gallia Narbonensis Son of Constantine I; appointed Caesar in 317, succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantius II and Constans I May 22, 337 – 340 3 years 340 (aged 24)
Died in battle against Constans I
  Constantius II
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS


(EAST)

then, after 353

(EAST and WEST)

August 7, 317, Sirmium, Pannonia Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantine II and Constans I; sole emperor from 350 May 22, 337 – November 3, 361 24 years, 5 months and 12 days 361 (aged 44)
Natural causes
  Constans I
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS CONSTANS AVGVSTVS


(MIDDLE)

then, after 340

(WEST)

c. 323 Son of Constantine I; succeeded as joint Augustus with his brothers Constantine II and Constantius II May 22, 337 – 350 13 years 350 (aged 27)
Assassinated on the orders of the usurper Magnentius
 
Vetranio
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VETRANIO AVGVSTVS


(WEST)

?, Moesia General of Constans, proclaimed Caesar against Magnentius and temporarily accepted as Augustus of the west by Constantius II. March 1, 350 – December 25, 350 9 months and 24 days c. 356 (aged ?)
As a private citizen, after abdication.
 
Julian
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS IVLIANVS AVGVSTVS


(WEST)

then, after 361

(EAST and WEST)

331/332, Constantinople, Thracia Cousin of Constantius II; made Caesar of the west in 355; proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 360; sole emperor after the death of Constantius February 360 – June 26, 363 3 years June 26, 363 (aged 31/32)
Mortally wounded in battle
  Jovian
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IOVIANVS AVGVSTVS


(EAST and WEST)

331, Singidunum, Moesia General of Julian's army; proclaimed emperor by the troops on Julian's death June 26, 363 – February 17, 364 7 months and 22 days February 17, 364 (aged 33)
Natural causes (suffocated on fumes)

364–392: Valentinian dynasty

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Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Valentinian I
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS


(EAST and WEST)

then

(WEST)

321, Cibalae, Pannonia Elected to replace Jovian by the army February 26, 364 – November 17, 375 11 years, 8 months and 22 days November 17, 375 (aged 54)
Natural causes
  Valens
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS VALENS AVGVSTVS


(EAST)

328, Cibalae, Pannonia Brother of Valentinian I, appointed co-augustus (for the east) by him March 28, 364 – August 9, 378 14 years, 4 months and 12 days August 9, 378 (aged 50)
Killed in Battle of Adrianople against the Goths
  Gratian
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS GRATIANVS AVGVSTVS


(WEST)

April 18/May 23, 359, Sirmium, Pannonia Son of Valentinian I, appointed junior Augustus by him in 367, became senior Augustus (for the west) after Valentinian's death. August 4, 367 – August 25, 383 16 years and 21 days August 25, 383 (aged 24)
Murdered by rebellious army faction
  Valentinian II
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS


(WEST)

371, Milan, Italia Son of Valentinian I, proclaimed emperor by Pannonian army after Valentinian's death; accepted as co-Augustus for the west by Gratian November 17, 375 – May 15, 392 16 years, 5 months and 28 days May 15, 392 (aged 21)
Unclear; possibly murdered or committed suicide
Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
 
 
Magnus Maximus

IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MAGNVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS

(WEST)


with

Victor

IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VICTOR AVGVSTVS

c. 335, Hispania Usurper in the West; legitimized along with his son Victor by Theodosius I as emperors of Britannia and Gaul. 383/384 – August 28, 388 4/5 years August 28, 388 (aged 53)
Executed by Theodosius I in Aquileia after the Battle of the Save; Victor killed by Arbogast
Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
 
Eugenius

IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS EVGENIVS AVGVSTVS

(WEST)

? Usurper in the West; elevated to emperor by Arbogast. August 22 392 – September 6, 394 2 years, 15 days September 6, 394
Executed as a criminal by Theodosius I near the Frigidus river

Western Emperors

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392–455: Theodosian dynasty

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Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death.

Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
 
Theodosius I
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS
January 11, 347, Cauca or Italica, Hispania Son-in-law of Valentinian I, appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian after the death of Valens; became sole senior Augustus after death of Valentinian II (Eastern Emperor since 379) May 15, 392 – January 17, 395 2 years, 8 months and 2 days January 17, 395 (aged 48)
Natural causes
  Honorius
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS HONORIVS AVGVSTVS
September 9, 384 Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the west by Theodosius on January 23, 393 (after the death of Valentinian II); became senior Augustus for the west after his father's death January 17, 395 – August 15, 423 28 years, 6 months and 29 days August 15, 423 (aged 38)
Natural causes
 

 
Constantine III

IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CLAVDIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS

with

Constans II

IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANS AVGVSTVS

? Usurper who declared himself emperor in the west in 407, recognized as co-emperor by Honorius in 409. Elevated his son Constans II to co-emperor in 409, who was not recognized by Honorius. Neither recognized by the Eastern Empire. 407/409 - August or September 411 2 years August or September 411 (aged ?)
Executed by Constantius III
 
Constantius III
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTIVS AVGVSTVS
?, Naissus, Moesia Superior Married to Theodosius I's daughter Galla Placidia, elevated to co-Augustus for the west by Honorius; not recognized by the Eastern Empire February 8, 421 – September 2, 421 6 months and 25 days September 2, 421 (aged ?)
Natural causes
 
Joannes

IMPERATOR CAESAR IOHANNES AVGVSTVS

? A senior civil servant under Honorius, proclaimed emperor by Castinus; not recognized by the Eastern Empire August 27, 423 – May 425 2 years June or July 425 (aged ?)
Defeated in battle by Theodosius II and Valentinian III, captured and executed
 
Valentinian III
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PLACIDIVS VALENTINIANVS AVGVSTVS
July 2, 419, Ravenna, Italia Son of Constantius III, appointed Caesar for the west by Theodosius II after the death of Honorius, in opposition to the regime of Joannes; became Augustus for the west after the defeat of Joannes October 23, 424 – March 16, 455 30 years, 4 months and 21 days March 16, 455 (aged 35)
Assassinated, possibly at the behest of Petronius Maximus

455–476: Last emperors of the Western Empire

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Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
 
Petronius Maximus
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ANICIVS PETRONIVS MAXIMVS AVGVSTVS
c. 396 Son-in-law of Theodosius II, proclaimed himself emperor with the support of the army, after the death of Valentinian III. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. He appointed his son Palladius as caesar. March 17, 455 – May 31, 455 2 months and 14 days May 31, 455 (aged 58/59)
Murdered, probably stoned to death by the Roman mob
 
Avitus
IMPERATOR CAESAR MARCVS MAECILIVS FLAVIVS EPARCHIVS AVITVS AVGVSTVS
c. 385 Magister militum under Petronius Maximus, proclaimed emperor by the Visigoth king Theoderic II after Petronius's death. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. July 9, 455 – October 17, 456 1 year, 3 months and 8 days after 17 October 456 (aged 71)
Deposed by his Magister militum, Ricimer; became bishop of Placentia; murdered at some point afterwards
 
Majorian
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS VALERIVS MAIORIANVS AVGVSTVS
November 420 Proclaimed emperor by his troops. Recognized by the Eastern Empire at the behest of Ricimer. April 457 – August 2, 461 4 years August 7, 461 (aged 40)
Deposed and beheaded on the orders of Ricimer.
 
Libius Severus
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS LIBIVS SEVERVS SERPENTIVS AVGVSTVS
?, Lucania, Italia Appointed emperor by Ricimer. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. November 461 – August 465 4 years August 465 (aged 45)
Probably poisoned by Ricimer
  Anthemius
IMPERATOR CAESAR PROCOPIVS ANTHEMIVS AVGVSTVS
c. 420 Son-in-law of Marcian, appointed emperor by Leo I, with the consent of Ricimer. April 12, 467 – July 11, 472 5 years, 2 months and 29 days July 11, 472 (aged 52)
Executed by Ricimer or Gundobad (Ricimer's nephew).
 
Olybrius
IMPERATOR CAESAR ANICIVS OLYBRIVS AVGVSTVS
c. 420 Son-in-law of Valentinian III; appointed emperor by Ricimer. Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. July 11, 472 – November 2, 472 3 months and 22 days November 2, 472 (aged 41)
Natural causes
 
Glycerius
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS GLYCERIVS AVGVSTVS
? Appointed emperor by Gundobad (Ricimer's successor). Not recognized by the Eastern Empire. March 473 – June 474 1 year after 480 (aged ?)
Deposed by Julius Nepos, became Bishop of Salona, time and manner of death unknown
  Julius Nepos
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVLIVS NEPOS AVGVSTVS
c. 430 Nephew-in-law of the eastern emperor Leo I (and nephew of Marcellinus) appointed emperor in opposition to Glycerius June 474 – August 28, 475 (in Italy); – spring 480 (in Gaul and Dalmatia) 1 year/6 years 480 (aged 50)
Deposed in Italy by Orestes, ruled in balance of Western Empire until assassination in 480. Maintained as figurehead in Italy by Odoacer to his death in 480.
  Romulus Augustulus
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ROMVLVS AVGVSTVS
c. 460[b] Appointed by his father, Orestes. Listed as an emperor by historical convention. His rule never extended beyond portions of the Italian peninsula. Not recognized by Eastern Emperor Zeno. October 31, 475 – September 4, 476 (in Italy) 10 months and 4 days Unknown.
Deposed by Odoacer, who then ruled in the name of Julius Nepos until the latter's death in 480, which formally ended the separate Western Empire; most likely lived out his life in obscurity on a private villa.

Note: The classical Roman Empire is usually said to have ended with the deposition of Romulus Augustulus, with its continuation in the East referred to by modern scholars as the Byzantine Empire.

Eastern Emperors

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379–457: Theodosian dynasty

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Note: Theodosius I was the last person to rule both halves of the Roman Empire, dividing the administration between his sons Arcadius and Honorius on his death.

Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
 
Theodosius I
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS
January 11, 347, Cauca or Italica, Hispania Son-in-law of Valentinian I, appointed as Augustus for the east by Gratian after the death of Valens; became sole senior Augustus after death of Valentinian II January 19, 379 – January 17, 395 16 years and 16 days January 17, 395 (aged 48)
Natural causes
 
Arcadius
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ARCADIVS AVGVSTVS
c. 377, Hispania Son of Theodosius I; appointed as junior Augustus for the east by Theodosius in January 383; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death January 17, 395 – May 1, 408 13 years May 1, 408 (aged 31)
Natural causes
 
Theodosius II
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS
April 10, 401, Constantinople Son of Arcadius; appointed as junior Augustus for the east by Arcadius in 402; became senior Augustus for the east after his father's death January 402 – July 28, 450 48 years July 28, 450 (aged 49)
Injuries suffered during a hunting accident
 
Pulcheria
IMPERATRIX AELIA PVLCHERIA AVGVSTA
January 19, 398, Constantinople Daughter of Arcadius and sister of Theodosius II; reigned as co-empress with the younger Theodosius II through his reign from 414 onwards, sole ruler of the empire upon his death as Augusta and Imperatrix July 28, 450 – July, 453 3 years July, 453 (aged 55)
Cause unknown
 
Marcian
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MARCIANVS AVGVSTVS
396, Thrace or Illyria Nominated as successor (and husband) by Pulcheria, ruled alongside her 450-453 and later alone November 25, 450 – January 25, 457 7 years January 457 (aged 65)
Gout

457–518: Leonid dynasty

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Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Leo I the Thracian
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS VALERIVS LEO AVGVSTVS
c. 400, Dacia Chosen by the army 7 February 457 – 18 January 474 17 years 18 January 474 (aged 73)
Dysentery
  Leo II
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS LEO AVGVSTVS
c. 467, Constantinople Grandson of Leo I 18 January – 17 November 474 9 months 17 November 474 (aged 7)
Cause unknown, possibly poisoned
  Zeno
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ZENO AVGVSTVS
c. 425, Isauria Named co-emperor by his son Leo II on 9 February 474. 17 November 474 – 9 April 491 17 years 9 April 491 (aged 66)
Dysentery or epilepsy
  Basiliscus
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS BASILISCVS AVGVSTVS


with

Marcus

IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MARCVS AVGVSTVS

? Seized throne from Zeno, Basiliscus appointed his son Marcus co-emperor at some point in 475. 9 January 475 – August 476 1 year, 7 months 476/477

Starved to death in Limnae (in Cappadocia) by Zeno

  Anastasius I Dicorus
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS
c. 430, Dyrrhachium Son-in-law of Leo I 11 April 491 – 9 July 518 27 years 9 July 518 (aged 87)
Natural causes

518–602: Justinian dynasty

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Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
 
Justin I
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVSTINVS AVGVSTVS
c. 450 at Bederiana (Justiniana Prima), Dardania Elected by army July 518 – 1 August 527 9 years 1 August 527 (aged 77)
Natural causes
 
Justinian I
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PETRVS SABBATIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS
c. 482 at Tauresium (Taor), Dardania Nephew of Justin I 1 August 527 – 13/14 November 565 38 years 13/14 November 565 (aged 83)
Natural causes
 
Theodora
THEODORA AVGVSTA
c. 500, Cyprus Wife of Justinian I, in some sources described as his co-regent. Theodora had her own court and imperial seal,[3] participated in state councils and Justinian described her as "partner in my deliberations".[4] 9 August 527 – 28 June 548 21 years 28 June 548 (aged 48)
Cancer
 
Justin II
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS IVSTINVS IVNIOR AVGVSTVS
c. 520 Nephew of Justinian I 14 November 565 – 5 October 578 13 years 5 October 578 (aged 58)
Natural causes, after insanity
 
Tiberius II Constantine

IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS TIBERIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS

c. 535 Adopted son of Justin II, regent from 574 5 October 578 – 14 August 582 3 years, 10 months 14 August 582 (aged 62)
Natural causes
 
Maurice
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS MAURICIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS


with

Theodosius

IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS

539 at Arabissus, Cappadocia Son-in-law of Tiberius II, appointed his son Theodosius (born in August 4 583/585) co-emperor in 590 14 August 582 – 22 November 602 20 years 27 November 602 (aged 63)
Executed, Theodosius executed a few days later by supporters of Phocas
Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Phocas
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS PHOCAS AVGVSTVS
? Seized throne 23 November 602 –
4 October 610
8 years 5 October 610
Executed

610–695: Heraclian dynasty

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Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Heraclius
(Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος)
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS
c. 575, Cappadocia Revolt 5 October 610 – 11 February 641 30 years 11 February, 641 (aged 65 or 66)
Natural causes
  Constantine III
(Ἡράκλειος νέος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος)
HERACLIVS NOVVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS
3 May 612, Constantinople Son of Heraclius 11 February – 24/26 May 641 3 months 24/26 May 641 (aged 28)
Tuberculosis
  Heraklonas
(Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος)
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS

with

Tiberius
(Φλάβιος Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος)
FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS

and

Martinus
(Φλάβιος Μαρτίνος Αὔγουστος)
FLAVIVS MARTINVS AVGVSTVS

3 May 626, Constantinople Son of Heraclius; his brothers Tiberius and Martinus briefly served as co-emperors. 11 February 641 – September 641 7 months unknown, but probably before 642
  Constans II
(Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος)
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS
7 November 630 Son of Constantine III. succeeded his uncle Heraklonas after he was deposed as emperor. September 641 – 15 September 668 27 years 15 September 668 (aged 37)
Assassinated
  Constantine IV
(Φλάβιος Κωνσταντῖνος Αὔγουστος)
IMPERATOR CAESAR FLAVIVS CONSTANTINVS AVGVSTVS

with

Heraclius
(Φλάβιος Ἡράκλειος Αὔγουστος)
FLAVIVS HERACLIVS AVGVSTVS

and

Tiberius
(Φλάβιος Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος)
FLAVIVS TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS

652, Constantinople Oldest son of Constans II, co-emperor since 654. His brothers Heraclius and Tiberius, co-emperors since 659, served as co-emperors until they were mutilated and deposed by Constantine in 681. 15 September 668 – 14 September 685

659 – 681 (Heraclius & Tiberius)

17 years

22 years (Heraclius & Tiberius)

14 September 685 (aged 33)
Dysentery
  Justinian II
(Φλάβιος Ἰουστινιανὸς Αὔγουστος)
FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS
668 or 669, Constantinople Son of Constantine IV, co-emperor since 681 14 September 685–695 10 years (1st reign) 11 December 711 (aged 42)
Killed by the army

695–717: Twenty Years' Anarchy

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Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Leontios
(Λεόντιος Αὔγουστος)
LEONTIVS AVGVSTVS[5]
Isauria Revolt 695–698 3 years Executed in February 706
  Tiberios III Apsimaros
(Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος)
TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS
Pamphylia Revolt 698–705 7 years Executed in February 706
  Justinian II
(Φλάβιος Ἰουστινιανὸς Αὔγουστος)
FLAVIVS IVSTINIANVS AVGVSTVS

(second reign)

with

Tiberius
(Τιβέριος Αὔγουστος)
TIBERIVS AVGVSTVS[6]

668 or 669, Constantinople Returned on the throne with Bulgar support. Named son Tiberius as co-emperor in 706. August 705 – December 711 6 years (2nd reign) 11 December 711 (aged 42)
Both killed by the army
  Philippikos Bardanes
(Φιλιππικὸς Αὔγουστος)
FILEPICVS AVGVSTVS[7]
Pergamon Revolt December 711 – 3 June 713 1 year, 6 months 713
  Anastasios II
(Αρτέμιος Ἀναστάσιος Αὔγουστος)
ARTEMIVS ANASTASIVS AVGVSTVS[8]
? Bureaucrat and secretary under Philippikos, he was raised to the purple by the soldiers June 713 – November 715 2 years, 5 months 718, during attempt to regain the throne
  Theodosius III
(Θεοδόσιος Αὔγουστος)
THEODOSIVS AVGVSTVS[9]
? Chosen by troops May 715 – 25 March 717 2 years Unknown. Became a monk

717–802: Isaurian dynasty

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Portrait Name Birth Succession Reign Time in office Death
  Leo III the Isaurian
(Λέων)
c. 685, Germanikeia, Commagene Rebellion 25 March 717 – 18 June 741 24 years June 741 (age 56)
Edema
  Constantine V
(Κωνσταντῖνος)
July 718, Constantinople Son of Leo III 18 June 741 – 14 September 775 34 years 14 September 775 (aged 57)
Carbuncle
  Artabasdos
(Ἀρτάβασδος)

with

Nikephoros
(Νικηφόρος)

? Son-in-law of Leo III. Usurped throne. Proclaimed his son Nikephoros as co-emperor in 741/742 June 741/742 – 2 November 743 1 year, 4 months Unknown
  Leo IV the Khazar
(Λέων)
750, Constantinople Son of Constantine V 14 September 775 – 8 September 780 5 years 780 (age 30)
Tuberculosis
  Constantine VI
(Κωνσταντῖνος)
771, Constantinople Son of Leo IV 8 September 780 – August 797 17 years 797 (age 26)
After blinding by Irene

Frankish emperors

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The rulers who were crowned as Roman emperors in Western Europe between AD 800 and 915 were as follows:

800–888: Carolingian dynasty

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Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
  Charles I, the Great (Charlemagne)
(742–814)
25 December 800 28 January 814
  Louis I, the Pious
(778–840)
11 September 813[10] 20 June 840 Son of Charles I
  Lothair I
(795–855)
5 April 823 29 September 855 Son of Louis I
  Louis II
(825–875)
29 September 855 12 August 875 Son of Lothair I
  Charles II, the Bald
(823–877)
29 December 875 6 October 877 Son of Louis I
  Charles III, the Fat
(839–888)
12 February 881 13 January 888 Grandson of Louis I

891–898: Widonid dynasty

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Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
  Guy I
(?–894)
891 12 December 894 Great-great grandson of Charles I
  Lambert I
(880–898)
30 April 892 15 October 898 Son of Guy I

896–899: Carolingian dynasty

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Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
  Arnulph
(850–899)
22 February 896 8 December 899 Nephew of Charles III

901–905: Bosonid dynasty

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Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)

 

Louis III, the Blind
(880–928)
22 February 901 21 July 905 Grandson of Louis II

915–924: Unruoching dynasty

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Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
  Berengar I
(845–924)
December 915 7 April 924 Grandson of Louis I

Holy Roman Emperors

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There was no emperor in the west between 924 and 962.

While earlier Germanic and Italian monarchs had been crowned as Roman emperors, the actual Holy Roman Empire is usually considered to have begun with the crowning of the Saxon king Otto I. It was officially an elective position, though at times it ran in families, notably the four generations of the Salian dynasty in the 11th century. From the end of the Salian dynasty through the middle 15th century, the emperors drew from many different German dynasties, and it was rare for the throne to pass from father to son. That changed with the ascension of the Austrian House of Habsburg, as an unbroken line of Habsburgs held the imperial throne until the 18th century. Later a cadet branch known as the House of Habsburg-Lorraine passed it from father to son until the abolition of the Empire in 1806. Notably, the Habsburgs were also dispensed with the requirement that emperors be crowned by the pope before exercising their office. Starting with Ferdinand I, all successive emperors forwent the traditional coronation.

962–1024: Ottonian dynasty

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Image Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
  Otto I, the Great
(912–973)
2 February 962 7 May 973 Great-great-great grandson of Louis I
  Otto II, the Red
(955–983)
25 December 967 7 December 983 Son of Otto I
  Otto III
(980–1002)
21 May 996 23 January 1002 Son of Otto II
  Henry II[note 1]
(973–1024)
14 February 1014 13 July 1024 Second cousin of Otto III

1027–1125: Salian dynasty

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Portrait Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
  Conrad II, the Elder[note 2]
(990–1039)
26 March 1027 4 June 1039 Great-great-grandson of Otto I
  Henry III, the Black
(1017–1056)
25 December 1046 5 October 1056 Son of Conrad II
  Henry IV
(1050–1106)
5 October 1056 7 August 1106 Son of Henry III
  Henry V[11]
(1086–1125)
13 April 1111 23 May 1125 Son of Henry IV

1133–1137: Supplinburg dynasty

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Portrait Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
  Lothair II[note 3]
(1075–1137)
4 June 1133 4 December 1137 Great-Grandnephew of Henry III

1155–1197: Staufen dynasty

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Portrait Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
  Frederick I Barbarossa
(1122–1190)
8 June 1155 10 June 1190 Great-grandson of Henry IV
  Henry VI
(1165–1197)
14 April 1191 28 September 1197 Son of Frederick I

1198–1215: Welf dynasty

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Portrait Coat of arms Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
    Otto IV
(1175–1218)
9 June 1198 1215 Great-grandson of Lothair II

1220–1250: Staufen dynasty

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Portrait Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
  Frederick II,
Stupor Mundi (1194–1250)
22 November 1220 13 December 1250 Son of Henry VI

The interregnum of the Holy Roman Empire is taken to have lasted from the deposition of Frederick II by Pope Innocent IV (1245, alternatively from the death of Frederick 1250 or the death of Conrad IV 1254) to the election of Rudolf I of Germany (1273). Rudolf was not crowned emperor, nor were his successors Adolf and Albert. The next emperor was Henry VII, crowned on 29 June 1312 by Pope Clement V.

1312–1313: House of Luxembourg

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Portrait Coat of arms Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
 
Holy Roman Emperor
   
Coats of arms
Henry VII
(1274–1313)
29 June 1312 24 August 1313 Great x11 grandson of Charles II

1314–1347: House of Wittelsbach

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Portrait Coat of arms Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
 
Holy Roman Emperor
   
Coats of arms
Louis IV, the Bavarian
(1282–1347)
October 1314 11 October 1347 Far descendant of Henry IV and great-great-great-great-grandson of Lothair II

1346–1437: House of Luxembourg

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Portrait Coat of arms Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
 
Holy Roman Emperor
   
Coats of arms
Charles IV
(1316–1378)
11 July 1346 29 November 1378 Grandson of Henry VII
 
Holy Roman Emperor
   
Coats of arms
Sigismund
(1368–1437)
31 May 1433 9 December 1437 Son of Charles IV

1440–1740: House of Habsburg

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In 1508, Pope Julius II allowed Maximilian I to use the title of Emperor without coronation in Rome, though the title was qualified as Electus Romanorum Imperator ("elected Emperor of the Romans"). Maximilian's successors adopted the same titulature, usually when they became the sole ruler of the Holy Roman Empire. Maximilian's first successor Charles V was the last to be crowned Emperor.

Portrait Coat of arms Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
    Frederick III, the Peaceful
(1415–1493)
2 February 1440 19 August 1493 second cousin of Albert II of Germany, Emperor designate.
    Maximilian I
(1459–1519)
19 August 1493 12 January 1519 Son of Frederick III
    Charles V
(1500–1558)
28 June 1519 (crowned 1530) 27 August 1556 Grandson of Maximilian I
    Ferdinand I
(1503–1564)
27 August 1556 (crowned 1558) 25 July 1564 Brother of Charles V
    Maximilian II
(1527–1576)
25 July 1564 12 October 1576 Son of Ferdinand I
    Rudolph II[note 4]
(1552–1612)
12 October 1576 20 January 1612 Son of Maximilian II
    Matthias
(1557–1619)
13 June 1612 20 March 1619 Brother of Rudolf II
    Ferdinand II
(1578–1637)
28 August 1619 15 February 1637 Cousin of Matthias
    Ferdinand III
(1608–1657)
15 February 1637 2 April 1657 Son of Ferdinand II
    Leopold I
(1640–1705)
18 July 1658 5 May 1705 Son of Ferdinand III
    Joseph I
(1678–1711)
5 May 1705 17 April 1711 Son of Leopold I
    Charles VI
(1685–1740)
12 October 1711 20 October 1740 Brother of Joseph I

1742–1745: House of Wittelsbach

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Portrait Coat of arms Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
    Charles VII
(1697–1745)
12 February 1742 20 January 1745 Great-great grandson of Ferdinand II; Son-in-law of Joseph I

1745–1765: House of Lorraine

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Portrait Coat of arms Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
    Francis I
(1708–1765)
13 September 1745 18 August 1765 Great-grandson of Ferdinand III; Son-in-law of Charles VI

1765–1806: House of Habsburg-Lorraine

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Portrait Coat of arms Name Reign Relationship with predecessor(s) Other title(s)
    Joseph II
(1741–1790)
18 August 1765 20 February 1790 Son of Empress Maria Theresa, de facto ruler of the empire, and Francis I.
    Leopold II
(1747–1792)
30 September 1790 1 March 1792 Son of Empress Maria Theresa,de facto ruler of the empire, and Francis I. Brother of Joseph II.
    Francis II
(1768–1835)
5 July 1792 6 August 1806 Son of Leopold II

Emperors of the French

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First French Empire

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NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Napoleon I
  • the Great
(1769-08-15)15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821(1821-05-05) (aged 51)18 May 180411 April 1814Bonaparte 

Hundred Days

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Regarded as a continuation of the First French Empire despite the brief exile of the Emperor Napoleon I

NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Napoleon I
  • the Great
(1769-08-15)15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821(1821-05-05) (aged 51)20 March 181522 June 1815Bonaparte 
Napoleon II
[12]
(1811-03-20)20 March 1811 – 22 July 1832(1832-07-22) (aged 21)22 June 18157 July 1815Son of Napoleon IBonaparte 

Second French Empire

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NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Napoleon III(1808-04-20)20 April 1808 – 9 January 1873(1873-01-09) (aged 64)2 December 18524 September 1870Nephew of Napoleon I
Cousin of Napoleon II
Bonaparte 

Emperors of Austria (1804–1918)

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NameLifespanReign startReign endNotesFamilyImage
Francis I(1768-02-12)12 February 1768 – 2 March 1835(1835-03-02) (aged 67)11 August 18042 March 1835The last Holy Roman Emperor; Son of Leopold IIHabsburg-Lorraine 
Ferdinand I(1793-04-19)19 April 1793 – 29 June 1875(1875-06-29) (aged 82)2 March 18352 December 1848
(abdicated)
Son of Francis IHabsburg-Lorraine 
Francis Joseph I(1830-08-18)18 August 1830 – 21 November 1916(1916-11-21) (aged 86)2 December 184821 November 1916Nephew of Ferdinand I; grandson of Francis IHabsburg-Lorraine 
Charles I
  • the Blessed
(1887-08-17)17 August 1887 – 1 April 1922(1922-04-01) (aged 34)21 November 191611 November 1918
(resigned)
Grand-Nephew of Francis Joseph I; great-great-grandson of Francis IHabsburg-Lorraine 


Cite error: There are <ref group=lower-alpha> tags or {{efn}} templates on this page, but the references will not show without a {{reflist|group=lower-alpha}} template or {{notelist}} template (see the help page).

  1. ^ Watson, Alaric (1999). Aurelian and the Third Century. London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-07248-4. {{cite book}}: Cite has empty unknown parameter: |coauthors= (help)
  2. ^ Körner, Christian (December 23, 2008). "Aurelian (A.D. 270-275)". De Imperatoribus Romanis: An Online Encyclopedia of Roman Rulers and Their Families. Retrieved January 6, 2011.
  3. ^ Anderson & Zinsser, Bonnie & Judith (1988). A History of Their Own: Women in Europe, Vol 1. New York, NY: Harper & Row. p. 47.
  4. ^ Diehl, Charles (1963). Byzantine Empresses. New York, NY: Alfred A. Knopf.
  5. ^ "(138) Leontius". www2.lawrence.edu. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
  6. ^ "Justinian II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
  7. ^ "Philippicus - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
  8. ^ "Anastasius II - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
  9. ^ "Theodosius III - Byzantine Coinage - WildWinds.com". www.wildwinds.com. Retrieved 2019-04-17.
  10. ^ Egon Boshof: Ludwig der Fromme. Darmstadt 1996, p. 89
  11. ^ Barraclough, Geoffrey (1984). The Origins of Modern Germany. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-30153-3.
  12. ^ From 22 June to 7 July 1815, Bonapartists considered Napoleon II as the legitimate heir to the throne, his father having abdicated in his favor. However, the young child's reign was entirely fictional, as he was residing in Austria with his mother. Louis XVIII was reinstalled as king on 7 July.


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