Culture edit
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Indian cultural history spans more than 4,500 years.[1] The foundation of Hindu philosophy, mythology, literary traditions, beliefs and practices, such as dhárma, kárma, yóga and mokṣa were laid during the Vedic period.[2] Distinctive in this culture is its religious diversity, which include Hinduism, Sikhism, Islam, Christianity and Jainism.[3] The predominant religion, Hinduism, has been shaped by the various schools of thought including those of the Upanishads,[4] the Yoga Sutras, the Bhakti movement,[3] and by Buddhist philosophy.[5]
The earliest literary writings in India, composed between 1,400 BCE and 1,200 AD, were in the Sanskrit language.[6][7] Prominent works of this Sanskrit literature include epics such as Mahābhārata and Ramayana, the dramas of Kalidasa such as the Abhijñānaśākuntalam (The Recognition of Śakuntalā), and poetry such as the Mahākāvya.[8][9][10] Developed between 600 BCE and 300 CE in Southern India, the Sangam literature consisting of 2,381 poems is regarded as a predecessor of Tamil literature.[11][12][13][14] From the 14th to the 18th centuries, literary traditions went through a period of drastic change because of the emergence of devotional poets such as Kabīr, Tulsīdās and Guru Nānak. This period was characterised by varied and wide spectrum of thought and expression and as a consequence, medieval Indian literary works differed significantly from classical traditions.[15] In the 19th century, Indian writers took a new interest in social questions and psychological descriptions. During the 20th century, Indian literature was heavily influenced by the works of universally acclaimed Bengali poet and novelist Rabindranath Tagore.[16]
Much of Indian architecture, including notable monuments such as the Taj Mahal and other examples of Mughal architecture and South Indian architecture, comprises a blend of ancient and varied local traditions from several parts of the country and abroad.[17] Vernacular architecture also displays notable regional variation.
Society and traditions edit
Traditional Indian society is defined by relatively strict social hierarchy. The Indian caste system describes the social stratification and social restrictions in the Indian subcontinent, in which social classes are defined by thousands of endogamous hereditary groups, often termed as jātis or castes.[19] Several influential social reform movements, such as the Brahmo Samaj, the Arya Samaj and the Ramakrishna Mission, have played a pivotal role in the emancipation of Dalits (or "untouchables") and other lower-caste communities.[20] India declared untouchability to be illegal in 1947[21] and has since enacted other anti-discriminatory laws and social welfare initiatives. However, the majority of Dalits continue to live in segregation and are often persecuted and discriminated against.[22] Though, at the urban workplace and in international or leading Indian companies, caste-related identification has lost much of its importance.[23][24]
Traditional family values are highly valued, and multi-generational patriarchal joint families have been the norm in India, though nuclear families are becoming common in urban areas.[25] An overwhelming majority of Indians have their marriages arranged by their parents or other family members.[26] Marriage is thought to be for life,[26] and the divorce rate is extremely low but rising due to women's education and increasing economic independence.[27] Child marriage is still a common practice, more so in rural India, with more than half of women in India marrying before the legal age of 18.[28]
Many Indian festivals are religious in origin. The best known include Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Thai Pongal, Holi, Durga Puja, Eid ul-Fitr, Bakr-Id, Christmas, and Vaisakhi.[29][30] India has three national holidays which are observed in all states and union territories – Republic Day, Independence Day and Gandhi Jayanti. Other sets of holidays, varying between nine and twelve, are officially observed in individual states.
Indian cuisine is best known for its delicate use of herbs and spices and for its tandoori grilling techniques. The tandoor, a clay oven in use for almost 5,000 years in India, is known for its ability to grill meats to an "uncommon succulence" and for the puffy flatbread known as the naan.[31] The staple foods are rice (especially in the south and the east), wheat (predominantly in the north)[32] and lentils.[33] Many spices which are consumed worldwide are originally native to the Indian subcontinent. Chili pepper which was introduced by the Portuguese is widely used in Indian cuisine.[34]
Traditional Indian dress varies across the regions in its colours and styles and depends on various factors, including climate. Popular styles of dress include draped garments such as sari for women and dhoti or lungi for men; in addition, stitched clothes such as salwar kameez for women and kurta-pyjama, European-style trousers and shirts for men, are also popular.[35] The wearing of delicate jewellery, modelled on real flowers, is part of a tradition dating back some 5,000 years; gemstones are also worn as talismans.[36]
Performing arts and cinema edit
Indian music covers a wide range of traditions and regional styles. Classical music largely encompasses the two genres – North Indian Hindustani, South Indian Carnatic traditions and their various offshoots in the form of regional folk music.[37] Regionalised forms of popular music include filmi and folk music; the syncretic tradition of the bauls is a well-known form of the latter.
Indian dance has diverse folk and classical forms. Among the well-known folk dances are the bhangra of the Punjab, the bihu of Assam, the chhau of Odisha, West Bengal and Jharkhand, sambalpuri of Orissa, the ghoomar of Rajasthan and the lavani of Maharashtra. Eight dance forms, many with narrative forms and mythological elements, have been accorded classical dance status by India's National Academy of Music, Dance, and Drama. These are: bharatanatyam of the state of Tamil Nadu, kathak of Uttar Pradesh, kathakali and mohiniyattam of Kerala, kuchipudi of Andhra Pradesh, manipuri of Manipur, odissi of Orissa and the sattriya of Assam.[38]
Theatre in India often incorporates music, dance, and improvised or written dialogue.[39] It is often based on Hindu mythology, but also borrows from medieval romances and news of social and political events. Indian theatre includes the bhavai of state of Gujarat, the jatra of West Bengal, the nautanki and ramlila of North India, the tamasha of Maharashtra, the burrakatha of Andhra Pradesh, the terukkuttu of Tamil Nadu, and the yakshagana of Karnataka.[40]
The Indian film industry is the most watched film industry in the world.[41] Established traditions exist in Assamese, Bengali, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Marathi, Oriya, Tamil, and Telugu language cinemas.[42] South India's cinema industries account for more than 75% of total film revenues.[42] Television broadcasting began in the country in 1959 as a state-run medium of communication and had slow expansion for more than two decades.[43][44] The state monopoly on television broadcast, Doordarshan, ended in the 1990s and since then, satellite channels have increasingly shaped the popular culture of Indian society.[45] It is the most penetrative media; industry estimates indicate that as of 2012[update] there are over 554 million TV consumers, 462 million with satellite and/or cable connections, compared to other forms of mass media such as press (350 million), radio (156 million) or internet (37 million).[46]
Sports edit
India's official national sport is field hockey, administered by Hockey India. The Indian hockey team won the 1975 Hockey World Cup and 8 gold, 1 silver and 2 bronze medals at the Olympic games, making it one of the world's most successful national hockey teams ever. Cricket, however, is by far the most popular sport;[47] the India cricket team won the 1983 and the 2011 World Cups, 2007 ICC World Twenty20, and shared the 2002 ICC Champions Trophy with Sri Lanka. Cricket in India is administered by the Board of Control for Cricket in India (BCCI) and domestic competitions include the Ranji Trophy, the Duleep Trophy, the Deodhar Trophy, the Irani Trophy and the NKP Salve Challenger Trophy. In addition, the BCCI conducts the Indian Premier League, a Twenty20 competition.
Several traditional sports which originated in the country continue to remain fairly popular. These include kabaddi, kho kho, pehlwani and gilli-danda. Some of the earliest forms of Asian martial arts, such as Kalarippayattu, Yuddha, Silambam and Varma Kalai, originated in India. The Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna and the Arjuna Award are India's highest awards for achievements in sports, while the Dronacharya Award is awarded for excellence in coaching.
Chess, commonly held to have originated in India, is regaining widespread popularity with the rise in the number of Indian Grandmasters.[48] Tennis has also become increasingly popular, owing to the victories of the India Davis Cup team and the success of Indian tennis players.[49] India has a strong presence in shooting sports, winning several medals at the Olympics, the World Shooting Championships and the Commonwealth Games.[50][51] Other sports in which Indian sportspersons have won numerous awards or medals at international sporting events include badminton,[52] boxing,[53] and wrestling.[54] Football is a popular sport in northeastern India, West Bengal, Goa, Tamil Nadu and Kerala.[55]
India has hosted or co-hosted several international sporting events, such as the 1951 and the 1982 Asian Games, the 1987, 1996, 2011 Cricket World Cups, the 2003 Afro-Asian Games, the 2006 ICC Champions Trophy, the 2010 Hockey World Cup and the 2010 Commonwealth Games. Major international sporting events annually held in India include the Chennai Open, Mumbai Marathon, Delhi Half Marathon and the Indian Masters.
Refs edit
- ^ Kuiper 2010, p. 15. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFKuiper2010 (help)
- ^ Kuiper 2010, p. 86. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFKuiper2010 (help)
- ^ a b Heehs 2002, pp. 2–5.
- ^ Deutsch 1969, pp. 3, 78.
- ^ Nakamura 1999.
- ^ Hoiberg & Ramchandani 2000.
- ^ Sarma 2009.
- ^ Johnson 2008.
- ^ MacDonell 2004, pp. 1–40.
- ^ Kālidāsa & Johnson 2001.
- ^ Zvelebil 1997, p. 12.
- ^ Hart 1975.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica 2008.
- ^ Ramanujan 1985, pp. ix–x.
- ^ Das 2005.
- ^ Datta 2006.
- ^ Kuiper 2010, p. 296–329. sfn error: multiple targets (2×): CITEREFKuiper2010 (help)
- ^ United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organisation.
- ^ Schwartzberg 2011.
- ^ Paswan, Sanjay (2002), Encyclopaedia of Dalits in India: Movements, Gyan Publishing House, ISBN 8178350343
- ^ "Spiritual Terrorism: Spiritual Abuse from the Womb to the Tomb", p. 391, by Boyd C. Purcell
- ^ CBC News 2007.
- ^ Messner 2009, p. 51-53.
- ^ Messner 2012, p. 27-28.
- ^ Makar 2007.
- ^ a b Medora 2003.
- ^ Jones & Ramdas 2005, p. 111.
- ^ Cullen-Dupont 2009, p. 96.
- ^ List of Holidays in India, retrieved 7 July 2010
- ^ 18 Popular India Festivals, retrieved 23 December 2007
- ^ NYT 2011.
- ^ Kiple & Ornelas 2000, pp. 1140–1151.
- ^ Yadav, McNeil & Stevenson 2007, pp. 174.
- ^ Achaya 1994, Achaya 1997
- ^ Tarlo 1996, pp. xii, xii, 11, 15, 28, 46.
- ^ Eraly 2008, p. 160.
- ^ Massey & Massey 1998.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica b.
- ^ Lal 2004, pp. 23, 30, 235.
- ^ Karanth 2002, p. 26.
- ^ Dissanayake & Gokulsing 2004.
- ^ a b Rajadhyaksha & Willemen 1999, p. 652.
- ^ Sunetra Sen Narayan, Globalization and Television: A Study of the Indian Experience, 1990–2010 (Oxford University Press, 2015); 307 pages
- ^ Kaminsky & Long 2011, pp. 684–692.
- ^ Mehta 2008, pp. 1–10.
- ^ Media Research Users Council 2012.
- ^ Shores, Lori (15 February 2007), Teens in India, Compass Point Books, p. 78, ISBN 9780756520632, retrieved 24 July 2011
- ^ Rediff 2008 b.
- ^ The Wall Street Journal 2009.
- ^ British Broadcasting Corporation 2010 b.
- ^ The Times of India 2010.
- ^ British Broadcasting Corporation 2010 a.
- ^ Mint 2010.
- ^ The Times of India 2010 b.
- ^ Majumdar & Bandyopadhyay 2006, pp. 1–5.
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