User:Tpwissaa/sandbox

POLTICS OF TH SU

Tea Party Movement
Gadsen flag
Ideology	Fiscal conservatism Economic liberalism Libertarianism Right-wing populism
Political position	Right-wing
National affiliation	Republican Party

New Deal Coalition
Prominent members	Franklin D. Roosevelt Harry S. Truman Lyndon B. Johnson Adlai Stevenson II Henry A. Wallace Hugh S. Johnson
Founded	1932
Dissolved	1960's
Succeeded by	Progressive Party Dixiecrats
Ideology	Early phase: Big tent Populism Social liberalism Later phase: Modern liberalism Anti-communism Pro-Civil rights
Slogan	"Happy Days Are Here Again" (1932)

New Deal Coalition
Prominent members	Franklin D. Roosevelt Harry S. Truman John F. Kennedy Lyndon B. Johnson Adlai Stevenson II Henry A. Wallace Hugh S. Johnson
Founded	1932
Dissolved	1960's
Ideology	Modern liberalism Social liberalism Populism Progressivism
Political position	Centre-left to Left wing
Slogan	"Happy Days Are Here Again"
Senate Seats (75th Congress)	76 / 96
House Seats (75th Congress)	333 / 435

The United States of America
1781–1789
Flag Seal
Motto: E pluribus unum
Anthem: None official
Map of the United States in 1783
Capital	Philadelphia (1781-1783) Princeton (1783) Annapolis (1783-1784) Trenton (1784) New York City (1784-1789)
Government	Confederal republic
President of the Congress
• 1779-1781	Samuel Huntington (first)
• 1788	Cyrus Griffin (last)
Legislature	Congress of the Confederation
Historical era	American Revolution
• Established	1 March 1781
• Battle of Yorktown	September 1781
• Philadelphia Mutiny	June 1783
• Signing of the Treaty of Paris	September 1783
• Constitutional Convention begins	May 1787
• Shay's Rebellion	August 1787
• States begin ratification of Constitution	December 1787
• Articles of Confederation superseded by 1789 Constitution	4 March 1789
Preceded by Thirteen Colonies

United Colonies of New England
1643–1686
Flag
New England in 1660
Status	Disestablished
Common languages	English Massachusett, Mi'kmaq
Religion	Congregationalism
Government	Directorial confederation
Commissioners
• 1643	Thomas Dudley John Winthrop William Collier Edward Winslow Theophilus Eaton Thomas Gregson George Fenwick Edward Hopkins
Legislature	None (deffered to individual colonial assemblies)
Historical era	Great Migration, British colonization of the Americas, American Indian Wars, Anglo-Dutch Wars
• Established	19 May 1643
• Disestablished	1686
Currency	Pound sterling
Preceded by Succeeded by Massachusetts Bay Colony Plymouth Colony Saybrook Colony New Haven Colony Dominion of New England

Cold War
NATO and   Warsaw Pact states during the Cold War-era
Date 12 March 1947 - 26 December 1991 (44 years and 289 days) Location Global Conflict Result Dissolution of the Soviet Union and independence of former constiteunt Union Republics Dissolution of the Warsaw Pact Decolonisation across the globe Start of the Yugoslav Wars Conflict in Post-Soviet territory United States becomes sole global superpower see Effects of the Cold War
Belligerents
North Atlantic Alliance United States United Kingdom France Belgium Italy Netherlands Canada Denmark Luxembourg Portugal Iceland Norway Greece West Germany Turkey Spain Other Anti-communist States: South Korea South Vietnam Thailand Australia New Zealand	Communist Bloc 1947-1961 Soviet Union People's Repblic of China Poland Albania Bulgaria East Germany Yugoslavia North Vietnam Hungary Mongolia Romania Czechoslovakia Khmer Rouge North Korea

Left-right from top: Mushroom cloud of the Ivy Mike nuclear test, 1952. Korean refugees, at Haengju, South Korea, 1951. East German construction workers building the Berlin Wall, 1961. Soviet frigate Bezzavetny bumping USS Yorktown, American astronaut Thomas P. Stafford (right) and Soviet cosmonaut Alexei Leonov (left) shake hands in outer space, 1975. The fall of the Berlin Wall, 1989.

Second Thirty Years' War
Left-right from top: Kaiser Wilhelm II inspecting Turkish troops, French soldiers at the Battle of Verdun, Bolshevik leaders during the Russian Civil War, Spanish Republicans at Irún, German soldiers during the Battle of Stalingrad, Chinese soldiers at Change
Date 28 July 1914 - 2 September 1945 Location Global Conflict in various phases: Africa, Asia, Europe, North America Result Peace treaties Treaty of Versailles Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine Treaty of Trianon Treaty of Sèvres United States–Austria Peace Treaty United States–Germany Peace Treaty United States–Hungary Peace Treaty Treaty of Brest-Litovsk Treaty of Tartu Treaty of Kars Treaty of Riga German Instrument of Surrender Surrender of Japan
Belligerants
Entente Forces United Kingdom France Serbia Russia Italy Japan United States	Central Powers Austria-Hungary Germany Ottoman Empire Bulgaria
Allied Forces Russian Republic White Guard Don Republic Japan United Kingdom United States Czechoslovakia	Revolutionary Forces Russian SFSR (1917–22) Ukrainian SSR ( 1917–18; 1919–22) Soviet Union (after 1922) Other Bolshevik states: Belarusian SSR ( 1919; 1920–22) Transcaucasian SFSR (1922) Far Eastern Republic (1920–22) Finnish SWR (1918) D-KRSR (1918) Odessa SR (1918) Taurida SSR (1918) Baku Commune (1918) Estonian Commune (1918–19) Latvian SSR (1918–20) Lithuanian SSR (1918–19) Litbel (1919) Galician SSR (1920) Soviet Polish SRC (1920) Persian SSR (1920–21) Armenian SSR (1920–22) Azerbaijan SSR (1920–22) Georgian SSR (1921–22) Khorezm PSR (1920–23) Bukharan PSR (1920–23) Anti-Bolshevik Left: Left SRs Green Army Makhnovia	Central Powers and Separatists: Germany (1917–18; 1919) Austria-Hungary (1917–18) Ottoman Empire (1917–18; 1920–21) Poland (1918–20) Finland (1918–20) Ukraine (1918–20) Estonia (1918–20) Latvia (1918–20) Lithuania (1918–19) Also: West Ukraine (1918–19) Belarus (1918–19) Central Lithuania (1920–22) Moldavia (1917–18) Transcaucasia (1918) Georgia (1918–21) Armenia (1918–20; 1921) Turkestan (1917–18) Centrocaspia (1918) Aras (1918–19) Caucasian Emirate (1919–20) Azerbaijan (1918–20) MRNC (1917–21) Green Ukraine (1918–22) Buryat-Mongolia (1917–21) Yakutia (1918) Altai (1917–20; 1921–22) China (1921) Persia (1919–20) Makhnovia (1920–21) Mongolia (1921) East Karelia (1918–20) North Ingria (1919–20) Southern Karelia (1920) Karelian United Government (1920–23) Basmachi (1918–22) Bukhara (1920) Khiva (1918–20) Supported by: Sweden (1918) Afghanistan (until 1922) Hungary (1919–20)
Spanish Republican Side Republic of Spain Soviet Union Mexico France	Spanish Nationalist Side Spanish State Italy Germany Portugal
Allies Soviet Union United States United Kingdom Other Republic of China Poland Czechoslovakia Norway Netherlands Belgium Luxembourg Free France Ethiopia Greece Yugoslavia Philippines India Canada Australia New Zealand South Africa Brazil Mongolia Mexico	Axis Powers Germany Kingdom of Italy Empire of Japan Other Kingdom of Hungary Kingdom of Romania Slovak Republic Kingdom of Bulgaria Independent State of Croatia Republic of Finland

Reformers
Founded	1620s
Dissolved	1790s
Ideology	Reformism Liberalism Republicanism Modernization Populism Merchant's interests
Political position	Centre-left
Religion	Protestanism

Conservatives
Founded	1690s
Dissolved	1790s
Succeeded by	Federalist Party
Ideology	Theocracy Isolationism Conservatism New Jerusalem Regionalism Anti-catholicism Autonomism
Political position	Right wing
Religion	Puritanism

Loyalists
Succeeded by	United Empire Loyalists
Ideology	Monarchism Conservatism Toryism Anti-Independence
Political position	Right wing
Religion	Protestant

Sons of Liberty
Liberty Tree
Founded	1765
Dissolved	1776
Preceded by	Loyal Nine
Succeeded by	Provincial Committees of safety Committees of correspondence
Ideology	Initial phase: Rights of Englishmen "No taxation without representation" Later phase: Liberalism Republicanism American Independence
Political position	Left wing
National affiliation	Whiggism
Regional affiliation	Patriot revolutionaries
Colors	Red White
Slogan	"No taxation without representation"

For other uses, see User:Tpwissaa/sandbox (disambiguation).

Sons of Liberty
Liberty Tree
Founded	1765
Dissolved	1776
Preceded by	Loyal Nine
Succeeded by	Provincial Committees of safety Committees of correspondence
Ideology	Initial phase: Rights of Englishmen "No taxation without representation" Later phase: Liberalism Republicanism American Independence
Political position	Left wing
Colors	Red,   White

Sons of Liberty
Flag
Leaders	See below
Foundation	1765
Dissolved	1776
Motives	Before 1766: Opposition to the Stamp Act After 1766: Independence of the United Colonies from Great Britain
Active regions	Province of Massachusetts Bay Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations Province of New Hampshire Province of New Jersey Province of New York Province of Maryland Province of Virginia
Major actions	Public demonstrations, Direct action, Destruction of Crown goods and property, Boycotts, Tar and feathering, Pamphleteering
Notable attacks	Gaspee Affair, Boston Tea Party, Attack on John Malcolm
Allies	Patriot revolutionaries
Opponents	Great Britain Royal Colonial Governments Loyalists

Great Seal of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts
Versions
Armiger	Commonwealth of Massachusetts
Adopted	December 13, 1780
Motto	Ense petit placidam sub libertate quietem

The Great Seal of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts contains the coat of arms of Massachusetts. The coat of arms is encircled by the Latin text "Sigillum Reipublicæ Massachusettensis" (literally, The Seal of the Republic of Massachusetts). The Massachusetts Constitution designates the form of government a "commonwealth," for which Respublica is the correct Latin term. The Seal uses as its central element the Coat of Arms of Massachusetts. An official emblem of the State, the Coat of Arms was adopted by the Legislature in 1775, and then reaffirmed by Governor John Hancock and his Council on December 13, 1780. The present rendition of the seal was drawn by resident-artist Edmund H. Garrett, and was adopted by the state in 1900. While the inscription around the seal is officially in Latin, a variant with "Commonwealth of Massachusetts" in English is also sometimes used.

Coat of Arms

Commonwealth of Massachusetts
Coat of Arms	The simplified coat of arms used in the state flag and larger signage	Historical coat of arms (1876), adopted 1775.

History

Colony of New Plymouth

Main article: Plymouth Colony

Plymouth Colony
Seal of the Plymouth Colony, (c. 1620–1629)

Colony of Massachusetts Bay

Main article: Massachusetts Bay Colony

Massachusetts Bay COlony
Seal of the Massachusetts Bay Colony, (1629–1686, 1689-1691)

Dominion of New England

Main article: Dominion of New England

Dominion of New England
Seal used by the Colonial Administration	Coat of Arms of James II of England	Coat of Arms of William and Mary during their joint reign

Province of Massachusetts Bay

Main article: Province of Massachusetts Bay

Province of Massachusetts Bay
Coat of Arms of William and Mary	Coat of Arms of Queen Anne from 1702-1707	Coat of Arms of Queen Anne from 1702-1714	Coat of Arms of George I. George II, and George III

Massachusetts Provincial Congress

Main article: Massachusetts Provincial Congress

Massachusetts Bay Provincial Congress of Deputies
Seal used by the Provincial Congress

Controversy over Minuteman's sword and Native American imagery

Civil advocates demanded that the imagery in the State Seal (and on the Flag of Massachusetts that displays it) had to change, due to the Colonial broadsword's placement directly above the Native American depiction's head as a "form of white supremacist imagery".

On January 11, 2021, Governor Charlie Baker signed a bill establishing a commission to change the state flag and seal.

Government Seals of Massachusetts

• 
  Seal of the Governor of Massachusetts
• 
  Seal of the Massachusetts House of Representatives
• 
  Seal of the Massachusetts Senate
• 
  Alternative seal of the Massachusetts Senate
• 
  Seal of the Massachusetts State Police

See also

• Flag of Massachusetts

External links

• The History of the Arms and Great Seal of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts
• Arms of Massachusetts, American Heraldry Society

Massachusetts Category:Symbols of Massachusetts Massachusetts Massachusetts Massachusetts Category:Political controversies in the United States Category:Native American-related controversies Category:Race-related controversies in the United States

United Colonies of New England
1643–1686
Status	Dissolved
Religion	Puritanism
Demonym(s)	New Englander
Government	Directional Confederation and Military Alliance
Commissioner
Historical era	Great Migration, British colonization of the Americas, American Indian Wars, Anglo-Dutch Wars
• Established	May 19 1643
• Disestablished	1686
...

Hosts

Nicholas "Nick" Mullen (Born: December 13, 1988) is a standup comedian, voice actor, and comedy writer. He was born in New York City and raised the Greater Baltimore area. Mullen has also lived in Austin, Texas and Los Angeles, California. Mullen has stated that he has worked numerous jobs throughout the years including time as a pizza delivery driver and film production assistant.

Stavros Halkias (Greek: Σταύρος Χαλκιάς; born: February 11, 1989) is a Greek-American standup comedian. Halkias was born in Baltimore, Maryland to Greek immigrants. His family was active in the Greek Communist Party, with many members having to seek refuge in neighboring countries at various times. He was raised in Baltimore's Greektown and attended the University of Maryland, Baltimore County. Following graduation, while persuaing comedy Halkias also worked as a paralegal. Halkias currently lives in Astoria, Queens.

Adam Friedland (Born: April 10, 1987) is a South African American comedian. Friedland was born in Santa Monica, California to South African parents of Lithuanian Jewish decent. His parents left South Africa due to their opposition to the Apartheid white minority regime. During his childhood Friedland lived in Los Angeles, Capetown, and Las Vegas. Friedland attended George Washington University, graduating in 2009. Initially he sought to pursue a legal career however decided to become a comedian instead.

{{Culture of region | name = Culture of New England | region = New England | image = File:Ensign of New England (pine only).svg|border | imagesize = 150

| ethnooverride = Demographics of New England

| langtopics =

• New England English
• New England French
• Western New England English
• Yankee Dialect

| tradtopics =

• History of New England

| cuistopics =

• Cuisine of New England

| festoverride = Holidays | festtopics =

• Patriot's Day
• Evacuation Day
• Bunker Hill Day
• Feast of the Blessed Sacrament
• National Acadian Day
• Bennington Battle Day

| littopics =

• Literature of New England

| sporttopics =

• [[Sports in New England

| symbtopics =

• Flag of Saint David
• Other flags
• Welsh Dragon
• Welsh heraldry
• Celtic cross
• Celtic knot

}}

Documentation[create] [purge]

Editors can experiment in this template's sandbox (edit | diff) and testcases (create) pages.
Add categories to the /doc subpage. Subpages of this page.

Sons of Liberty
Flag
Foundation	1765
Dissolved	1776
Motives	Before 1766: Repealing of the Stamp Act After 1766: Independence of the United Colonies from Great Britain
Active regions	New England Colonies Province of Massachusetts Bay Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations Province of New Hampshire Middle Colonies Province of New Jersey Province of New York Southern Colonies Province of Maryland Province of Virginia
Ideology	Initial: No taxation without representation Later: Republicanism Independence from Great Britain
Major actions	Public demonstrations, Direct action, Destruction of Crown goods and property, Boycotts, Tar and feathering
Notable attacks	Boston Tea Party, Attack on John Malcolm
Allies	Patriot revolutionaries
Opponents	Kingdom of Great Britain Royal Colonial Governments Loyalists

For other uses, see User:Tpwissaa/sandbox (disambiguation).

Sons of Liberty
Flag
Leaders	See below
Foundation	1765
Dissolved	1776
Motives	Before 1766: Repealing of the Stamp Act After 1766: Independence of the United Colonies from Great Britain
Active regions	Province of Massachusetts Bay Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations Province of New Hampshire Province of New Jersey Province of New York Province of Maryland Province of Virginia
Ideology	Initial: Rights of Englishmen "No taxation without representation" Later: Republicanism Independence from Great Britain
Major actions	Public demonstrations, Direct action, Destruction of Crown goods and property, Boycotts, Tar and feathering
Notable attacks	Boston Tea Party, Attack on John Malcolm
Allies	Patriot revolutionaries
Opponents	Great Britain Royal Colonial Governments Loyalists

The Province of Massachusetts Bay was a British colony located on the east coast of America. The colony was founded as a merger of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the Plymouth Colony through royal charter in 1691. The largest and most populous of the New England Colonies, the province included, along with its main constituent colonies of Massachusetts Bay and Plymouth, the lands of Acadia, Martha's Vineyard, Nantucket, Nova Scotia, and the Province of Maine. The Commonwealth of Massachusetts is its direct successor, Maine has been a separate state since 1820, and Nova Scotia and New Brunswick are now Canadian provinces, having been part of the colony only until 1697.

Massachusetts Bay was one of the Thirteen Colonies which rebelled against the Kingdom of Great Britain and was a major center for revolutionary patriot thought and action. Pivotal events such as the Boston Tea Party and the Boston Massacre, which helped set the stage for war, took place in the province. The initial fighting of the revolution took place in Middlesex County at the Battles of Lexington and Concord. Due to independent nature of the colonists and persistent revolutionary activity, the government of the colony changed during its existence. Originally a semi-autonomous and self governing, the province found itself at odds with the government of Great Britain and was made a direct rule colony in 1774. With the onset of the Boston Campgain the Massachusetts Provincial Congress was established. The Provincial Congress governed the colony until 1780, when a new constitution was adopted.

The name Massachusetts comes from the Massachusett Indians, an Algonquian tribe. It has been translated as "at the great hill", "at the place of large hills", or "at the range of hills", with reference to the Blue Hills and to Great Blue Hill in particular.

Flags with modern usage

• 
  New England red ensign (without St. George's Cross)
• 
  Red Ensign with St. George's cross in the canton.
• 
  Blue Ensign of New England, also known as the Bunker Hill flag
• 
  Blue ensign, field defaced with six stars. Flag of the New England Governor's Conference
• 
  New England Acadians

Historical flags

• 
  Red Ensign of the Kingdom of England
• 
  Red ensign with cross removed
• 
  Naval Jack drawn by John Graydon in 1686, consisting of St George's cross with a pine tree in the canton.
• 
  Endecott Flag of early New England
• 
  Blue ensign variant with armillary sphere in canton instead of the Pine
• 
  New England variant of the Union Flag
• 
  Revolutionary War variant flag of New England
• 
  Revolutionary War variant flag of New England
• 
  Dominion of New England banner, also known as the Andros Flag
• 
  New England Green Ensign
• 
  New England green ensign after defacement

Military

• 
  Pine Tree Flag
• 
  Massachusetts Bay Navy
• 
  New England Buff banner. Flown by Connecticut militia
• 
  Saybrook militia
• 
  Bedford Flag
• 
  Suffolk militia Major's regiment
• 
  Suffolk militia Lieutenant colonel's regiment
• 
  Suffolk militia Colonel's regiment

Territorial

• 
  Lincoln County, Maine
• 
  Haverhill, Massachusetts, green ensign defaced with town seal
• 
  Newbury, Massachusetts

Related Flags

• 
  1901 Maine Flag
• 
  Maine ensign
• 
  Ensign of Massachusetts
• 
  Flag of Massachusetts reverse (1908-1971)
• 
  Vermont Republic, also known as Green Mountain Boys flag

I have noticed some issues with dating in the infobox of the article. I wanted to start a discussion in talk page to clarify the problems. First the date given for the time-span of the colony is 1691-1776. While it is true that the United Colonies declared independence from Great Britain in 1776, the Province of Massachusetts Bay continued to exist as a political entity until the adoption of the Massachusetts Constitution in 1780. The government type section also seems incomplete. The dates, government type, officials are all correct however they do not give a complete account. After 1775 Thomas Gage no longer had effective control of the Province and the governing of Massachusetts Bay was under the control of the Massachusetts Provincial Congress until the 1780 adoption of the Massachusetts Constitution. Also the timeline of significant events As with other historical states that have remained the same entity but gone through significant changes in government structure, I believe the infobox should reflect these changes. As the amount of changes needed wouldn't be minor I wanted to address these problems here.Tpwissaa (talk) 19:07, 13 July 2020 (UTC)

| blank_name_sec1 = Languages

| blank_info_sec1 = Creole languages

• Kouri-Vini
• Gullah

English language

• African American Vernacular English
• Appalachian English
• High Tider
• New Orleans English
• Southern American English
• Texan English

Indigenous Languages

• Alabama
• Caddo
• Catawban
• Cherokee
• Chickasaw
• Kosati
• Mikasuki
• Muskogean languages
• Tunica
• Tuscarora

Louisiana French
Texas German

}}

Historical affiliations

Archbishop of Salzburg (1112–1555)
Habsburg Monarchy (1555–1804)
Austrian Empire (1804–1809, 1814–1867)
Illyrian Provinces (1809–1814; capital)
Austria-Hungary (1867–1918)
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs (1918)
Kingdom of Yugoslavia (1918–1941)
Kingdom of Italy (1941–1945; occupied)
Nazi Germany (1943–1945; de facto)
SFR Yugoslavia (1945–1991)
Slovenia (1991–present)

Plymouth Colony
1620–1686 1689-1691
Flag Seal
Plymouth Colony town locations
Status	Disestablished
Capital	Plymouth
Common languages	English
Religion	Puritanism
Government	Autonomous self-governing colony
Governor
• 1620-1621	John Carver (first)
• 1689-1692	Thomas Hinckley (last)
Legislature	General Court
Historical era	British colonization of the Americas Puritan migration to New England (1620-1640)
• Charter given	1620
• First Thanksgiving	1621
• Pequot War	1636-1638
• New England Confederation formed	1643
• King Philip's War	1675-1676
• Disestablished, reorganized as the Province of Massachusetts Bay	1686 1689-1691
Succeeded by Dominion of New England Province of Massachusetts Bay

Confrontation with England

Since the founding of Massachusetts Bay, England had difficulty enforcing its laws and regulations on the colony. Massachusetts Bay was a Company colony which differed from other colonies in British North America. Unlike the Royal Colonies and Proprietary colonies the English Crown administrated, Massachusetts Bay was largely self-governing with its own House of Deputies, Governor, and other self-appointed Officers. Also unlike even other company-colonies, Massachusetts Bay did not keep its headquarters, governor, etc. in London but instead moved them to the colonial plantation. This ability and tradition of self-rule coupled with the theocratic nature of New England Puritan society meant that the Massachusetts Bay colonists thought of themselves as something apart from their "mother country" of England. The Puritan founders of Massachusetts and Plymouth saw themselves as having been divinely given their lands in the New World with a duty to implement and observe religious law. With the end of the Commonwealth of England and the reinstatement of the monarchy these division were exacerbated by many Puritan colonists having sympathy and similar beliefs to the Parliamentarians. With the relative weakness of the Royal administration to take control of the colonists at the issuing of the Charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company to the strengthening of the monarchy towards the end of the 17th century, Massachusetts Bay and the other New England Puritan colonies had remained largely independent.

When New Netherland was taken by the English in 1664 the Crown sent Royal Commissioners from the new Province of New York to New England to investigate the status of the government and legal system of the colonies. These Commissioners were tasked to bring the colonies into the fold and establish a more robust connection between England and the colonies, including allowing the Crown to nominate the Governor of the colony. This request was refused by the colonists who claimed the King had not right to "supervise [Massachusetts Bay's] laws and courts", further saying that as long as the colonists remained within the legal rights and privileges of their charter that they ought to continue on as they were. When the Commissioners asked that the colony pay its obligated 20% of all gold and silver found in their claim in New England the colonists responded that they were "not obligated to the king but by civility".

At the time in Massachusetts Bay there existed growing strife between the faction of more conservative Puritan political elite and the more moderate members of the colony. Massachusetts Bay extended the right to vote to only Puritan citizens leaving non-Puritans were excluded from civil society. With the population of the colony increasing and the non-Puritan population growing along with it there was tension and conflict as to the future direction of the colony. Many wealthy merchants and colonists wished to expand their economic base and commercial interests and saw the faction of conservative theocrats as thwarting that. Even among Puritan society the younger generation wished to liberalize society in a way which would help with commerce. Those who wanted Massachusetts Bay and New England to be a place for religious observance and theocracy were most hostile to any change in governance. When the Crown learned of these divisions they sought to have the enfranchisement of colonists expanded to include non-Puritans in hopes of a change in the managing of the colony.

The charges of insubordination against the colony included the denial of the ability of the Crown to legislate in New England, the fact that Massachusetts Bay was governing in the Province of New Hampshire and Maine, and the denial of freedom of conscience. However chief among the colonists transgressions was their violations of the Navigation Acts. The Navigation Acts were passed by Parliament to regulate trade within the English colonial empire. These regulations determined how and who the colonies could trade with. New England merchants were flaunting these laws by trading sometimes directly with European powers in Continental Europe. This infuriated many merchants, commercial societies, and Royal committees in London who petitioned the King for action claiming that the New England colonists were hurting their trade. The Lords of Trade's complaints were so serious that the King sent Edward Randolph to Boston in an attempt to rein in and regulate the colony. When he arrived in Boston he found a colonial government which refused to give into the Royal demands. Randolph reported to London that the General Court of Massachusetts Bay claimed the King had no right to interfere with the dealings of Massachusetts Bay. In response Randolph asked the Crown to halt and cut off all trade to and from the colony and further regulations be put in place. The Crown did not wish to enforce such a harsh measure and risk alienating the moderate members of New England society which supported England so they attempted to offer conciliatory measures if Massachusetts Bay followed the law. When these attempts at reconciliation were refused the Lords of Trade became wary of the colony's charter and further petitioned the Crown to either revoke or amend it. Edward Randolph was made head of Customs and Surveyor General of New England with his office in Boston. Despite this increased pressure, the General Court established laws which allowed merchants to circumvent Randolph's authority. Adding to Randolph's frustration was the fact that he relied on the Admiralty Court (which was controlled by the General Court} to rule on the laws he was attempting enforce. The moderate faction of the General Court was supportive of Randolph and the changes the Crown wished to make but the conservatives remained too powerful and blocked any attempt to side with England. However as the tensions mounted between the Crown and Massachusetts Bay and threats of legal action against the colony mounted, the General Court did pass laws which acknowledged certain English admiralty laws while still allowing for self-governance. This legislation was not seen as enough and Randolph's inability to exercise power meant that tension was still high.

Revocation of the charter

Threatened with a quo warranto by the Crown, two delegates from Massachusetts Bay were sent to London to meet with the Lords of Trade. The Lords demanded a supplementary charter to alleviate problems. However the agents sent by the General Court were under orders that they could not negotiate any change with the Charter and this only further enraged the Lords. As a result the quo warranto was issued against the Colony at once. The King, fearing this would stir problems within the colony, attempted to reassure the colonists that their private interests would not be infringed upon. The declaration did create problems however and political confrontation between the moderates and conservatives began. The moderates controlled the office of Governor and the Council of Assistants, and the conservative faction controlled the Assembly of Deputies. This political turmoil ended in compromise with the Deputies voting to allow the delegates in London to be able to negotiate and defend the colonial charter. Political confrontation spilled over into civil strife as the Puritan elite in Boston wished to continue to defend their charter and status quo theocratic governance, and those disenfranchised non-Puritans wishing to change Massachusetts Bay into a Royal colony that would extend to them rights and privileges.

When the warrant arrived in Boston the General Court voted on what course the colony should take. The two options they had were to immediately submit to royal authority and dismantle their government or to wait for further action and for the Crown to revoke their Charter and install a new governmental system. The General Court decided to wait out the Crown. Although they lacked a legal basis to continue their government it remained intact until its official revocation in 1686.

Initially the General Court consisted of the Governor of the colony, the Council of Assistants (an advice and consent body), and all the colonies Freemen. Unlike other New England colonies which used a more representative system, such as the Massachusetts Bay Colony, all the officers of the General Court were directly elected by the Freemen. At this early stage of the Colony's history the body of Freemen consisted of only the signatories to the Mayflower Compact. The Governor and Assistants acted as magistrates with legislative function being reserved for the Freemen in an open assembly. This form of direct democracy was similar to the open town meeting system still in place in many New England towns. However this method of governance did not last due to the inconvenience and cost of travel that colonists would have to endure to meet at the General Court. In 1639 changes were made which allowed Freemen of each town of the colony to elect from themselves 2 magistrates/delegates, the town of Plymouth was allowed 4. These delegates would act as local magistrates who could hear local cases and would also serves as delegates to the General Court. There were provisions which allowed these delegates to be removed from office if they were found to be "troublesome". Some elements of direct democracy remained, such as the officers continuing to be elected from the whole body of freemen and not the by delegates of the Court.

Who counted as a Freemen changed over the history of the Plymouth Colony. The original restrictions, limiting the freemen to those original Compact signatories was amended to include additional signatories. Some exclusions to this included groups as Quakers and Ranters. Signing of the compact required an oath of fidelity, and since groups such as Quakers are not permitted to take oaths they were to be excluded from Plymouth political life. In 1671 the qualifications for Freemen liberalized again. Any Puritan man over 21 years old who possessed property worth over £20 could be considered.

Davis, William T. (1900). History of the Judiciary of Massachusetts, Including the Plymouth and Massachusetts Colonies, the Province of Massachusetts Bay, and the Commonwealth. The Boston Book Company. ISBN 9780306706134.

History and predecessor bodies

Plymouth Colony

On December 17, 1623 the Plymouth Colony passed a resolution which declared that juries of 12 men would try "all criminal facts and all matters of trespass and debts". Before 1685 there existed four avenues for legal proceedings. The General Court (the colony's legislature), the Court of Assistants, the Admiralty Court, and Selectman's Court. The General Court, which functioned largely as the colony's legislature, consisted of the Governor, the Council of Assistants, and all the freeman of the colony. Due to the size of the colony at the time this type of judiciary was found to be inconvenient because of the constant travelling the freemen of the colony were forced to due. As a result the General Court decided that each town of the colony (towns other than Plymouth included: Duxbury, Scituate, Yarmouth, Taunton, Barnstable) were to nominate 2 freeman to act as judges and magistrates for local legal affairs. The town of Plymouth due to its larger population was allowed 4 freemen to act as magistrates. If any of the freemen were found to be insufficient in their duties then they may be dismissed. The open town meeting system of the colony allowed for any law passed by the General Court or magistrates to be repealed by popular vote. The qualifications of who constituted a Freeman changed throughout the colony's history. The title of Freeman initially was reserved to those who signed the Mayflower Compact but by 1671 it was extended to men "...twenty-one years of age, of sober mind and peaceful conversation, orthodox in the fundamentals of religion, and possessed of twenty pounds ratable estate in the Colony." The General Court met three times a year for the purpose of deciding legal proceedings. The Court of Assistants met three times a year. During these sessions the court would decide upon civil, criminal, and capital cases, as well as appellate cases. The most local level of judiciary, the Court of Selectmen, was established in 1661. The Selectmen were to be elected by the freemen of their respective towns and deal as magistrates with local legal affairs. Each town would have 3 or 5 freemen for the role. The Admiralty Court was made up of the Governor of the colony as well as a handful of members of Council of Assistants. This court dealt with maritime affairs, be it robberies, treason, piracy etc. There existed another legal structure which dealt with Indian affairs. These magistrates, sometimes styled Tithingman, were members of the Council of Assistants who were chosen to oversee and legal issue between Indian members of the colony.

Massachusetts Bay Colony

The Massachusetts Bay Colony had a General Court which initially consisted of the Governor, Deputy Governor, Council of Assistants, and all the other Freemen of the colony. The General Court met in session four times a year, and an additional four monthly meetings consisting of the executive officers of the Court. Unlike the Plymouth Colony, with its more direct democracy, the Massachusetts Bay General Court elected its officers through indirect elections. The Freemen were to elect the Assistants who then in turn would elect the Governor and Deputy Governor from among themselves. The colonists made the General Court the supreme authority in the colony, giving it alone the power to make and pass laws, tax, appoint officers, and apportion properties. In the early years of the Colony all trials were presided over by the General Court and Court of Assistants. With the colonists commitment to strict Puritan teachings they enacted laws that were based on the biblical Laws of Moses. In 1639 changes were made to the composition of Massachusetts Bay's judiciary. The General Court was reorganized to include the Governor, Deputy-Governor, Assistants, and legislative Deputies. The Court of Assistants, also known as the Great Quarter Courts, was scheduled to sit 4 times a year and was composed of the Governor and Deputy-Governor, and the Assistants. The next lower level of judiciary, the Inferior Courts, were composed of magistrates appointed by the General Court. As the years went on these Inferior Courts evolved into County level courts. These county level courts were also tasked with handling local Indian affairs. Cases not exceeding claims more than 20 shillings could be overseen by any of the General Court appointed magistrates who lived locally.

Constitutional Role

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https://books.google.com/books?id=gpssAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=washburn+judicial+history+of+massachusetts&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwiM6MLTg7joAhUjm-AKHTLvAKQQ6AEwAHoECAQQAg#v=onepage&q=washburn%20judicial%20history%20of%20massachusetts&f=false

Providence is the capital and most populous city in Rhode Island, and the 3rd most populous in New England. The city covers just over 20 square miles and as of 2019 has an estimated population of 179,335. It is the traditional seat of Providence County, although county government was abolished in 1842. It is the principal city of the Providence metropolitan area, the 38th largest metro area in the United States. Providence is also a principal city of the Greater Boston area (along with Worcester, Massachusetts and Boston) which contains a large part of New England's population.

It was founded in 1636 by Roger Williams, a Reformed Baptist theologian and religious exile from the Massachusetts Bay Colony. He named the area in honor of "God's merciful Providence" which he believed was responsible for revealing such a haven for him and his followers. The city is situated at the mouth of the Providence River at the head of Narragansett Bay. Providence was one of the first cities in the country to industrialize and became noted for its textile manufacturing and subsequent machine tool, jewelry, and silverware industries. Today, the city of Providence is home to eight hospitals and seven institutions of higher learning which have shifted the city's economy into service industries, though it still retains some manufacturing activity.

United Colonies of New England

The Articles of Confederation between the Plantations under the Government of the Massachusetts, the Plantations under the Government of New Plymouth, the Plantations under the Government of Connecticut, and the Government of New Haven with the Plantations in Combination therewith
Type	Directional Confederation and Military Alliance
Context	Great Migration, British colonization of the Americas, American Indian Wars, Anglo-Dutch Wars
Drafted	May 19, 1643
Parties	Massachusetts Bay Colony Plymouth Colony Saybrook Colony New Haven Colony

The Articles of Confederation of the United Colonies of New England, 1643

The United Colonies of New England, commonly known as the New England Confederation, was a short-lived military alliance of the New England colonies of Massachusetts Bay, Plymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven formed in May 1643. Its primary purpose was to unite the Puritan colonies in support of the church, and for defense against the American Indians and the Dutch colony of New Netherland. It was the first milestone on the long road to colonial unity, and was established as a direct result of a war that started between the Mohegans and Narragansetts. Its charter provided for the return of fugitive criminals and indentured servants, and served as a forum for resolving inter-colonial disputes. In practice, none of the goals were accomplished.

The confederation was weakened in 1654 after Massachusetts refused to join an expedition against New Netherland during the First Anglo-Dutch War, although it regained importance during King Philip's War in 1675. It was dissolved after numerous colonial charters were revoked in the early 1680s.

Treaty

With the expansion of the New England Colonies and their contact with the colonies of other European nations and Native tribes, New England colonial leaders sought an alliance and further integration. The treaty calls on the New England colonies as a nation, saying they share a way of life and religion. This alliance was meant to be a perpetual mode of defense and communication between the colonies themselves and any foreign threats.

The treaty contains 11 articles:

1. That the colonies should form into a league of friendship with mutual military assurance. This relationship would ensure the communal safety and welfare of the colonies and preserve their Puritan way of life.
2. The New England colonies were to maintain and keep their current territory. Their jurisdictions would remain unfettered by the other members of the confederation and any changes made thereafter would after would have to be agreed to by the other members.
3. In the event of war all members of the confederation were bound to each other. This meant that they had to contribute whatever they were capable, in terms of men and provisions, to the war effort. The colonies would also be obligated to provide a census of all their available men for militia. All men from ages 16-60 were to be considered eligible for service. Any gains from military conflict were to be divided in a just manner among the confederation.
4. If any member state of the confederation comes under attack then the other members must come to their aid without delay. This assistance would take place proportionally. Massachusetts Bay would be required to send 100 armed and supplied men, the other colonies 45 armed and supplied men or less based on proportionality. If a greater number of men or supplies are needed then the Commissioners of the Confederation would need to approve of the measure. If any confederation members is at fault in terms of war then they shall make just any obligations to the assisting members.
5. Two Commissioners shall be chosen from each province (2 from Massachusetts Bay, 2 from Plymouth, 2 from Saybrook, and 2 from New Haven). These Commissioners were to be tasked with administration of martial affairs. Any agreement not reached by all members not unanimously can be settled by a majority vote of six. The Commissioners were to meet once a year unless there was an extraordinary situation which prompted the need of a meeting. The meetings were to take place the first Thursday of in September. The locations of these meetings are to be in a specific order, first Boston, second at Hartford, third New Haven, and fourth at Plymouth, with the cycle then repeating. If any meeting place was found to be unfit then another may be decided.
6. The Commissioners would select a President from among themselves with a minimum 6 votes. This President would not have any extra powers and would serve a purely administrative function.
7. Commissioners would have power to draft law and codes that would benefit the general welfare of the Confederation. These laws would be to

See also

• Dominion of New England, an entirely different entity, 1686–1689
• History of New England
• New England Colonies

External links

• The Articles of Confederation of the United Colonies of New England Settlements
• New England Confederation

Category:1684 disestablishments in the Thirteen Colonies Category:States and territories established in 1643 Category:History of New England Category:Former confederations Category:1643 establishments in the Thirteen Colonies

Massachusetts Bay Company

Company type	Joint-stock company, Land grant, Colonial Company
Predecessor	Council for New England
Founded	1629
Defunct	1692
Fate	Charter revoked in 1684
Successor	Incorporated into the Province of Massachusetts Bay
Headquarters	London, England then Boston
Key people	Matthew Cradock. John Endecott, John Winthrop

A

Province of Massachusetts Bay
1691–1779
Flag Coat of Arms
Map depicting the colonial claims related to the province
Capital	Boston
Common languages	English, Massachusett, Mi'kmaq
Religion	Congregationalist
Government	Crown Colony
Monarch
• 1691–1694	William III and Mary II
• 1760–1783	George III
Royal Governor
• 1692–1694	Sir William Phips
• 1694–1774	full list
• 1774–1775	Thomas Gage
Legislature	Great and General Court
Historical era	British colonization of the Americas/American Revolution
• Massachusetts Charter issued	October 7 1691
• Provincial Congress established	October 4, 1774
• Massachusetts Declaration of Independence	May 1, 1776
• Admission to the Union	February 6, 1788
• Massachusetts Constitution adopted	October 1 1779
Currency	Massachusetts pound, Spanish dollar
Preceded by Succeeded by Plymouth Colony Massachusetts Bay Colony Province of Maine Acadia Massachusetts Nova Scotia
Today part of	Canada, United States

Boston City Charter
Overview
Jurisdiction	City of Boston
Subordinate to	Constitution of Massachusetts
Chambers	Boston City Council
Executive	Mayor of Boston

The Boston City Charter is a series of State statutes which codifies a system of rules for the government of the City of Boston. The Charter is not a typical city constitution but rather a series of amendments, General Court rulings, and case law which form the basis of government. The central organs of the Boston City Charter are the Mayoral Office and City Council. The composition of these offices, their term length, manner of election, and scope of power have changed throughout the years.

History

Before 1822, when Boston was incorporated as a city, it shared a similar manner of government to other New England towns. This meant that Boston, then known as "Town of Boston", was governed by a 7 member Board of Selectmen who would elect then among themselves an executive office of "Intendant". To serve as legislature there was a "Board of Assistants". The Assistants were given a mix of legislative and executive powers and were elected from Boston's then 12 wards. As with other New England towns the town meeting was still to be the primary democratic body of Boston and these executive offices would govern when in between these general sessions.

First City Charter

When Boston voted to become a city in 1822, the position of Intendant was replaced with Mayor, the Board of Assistants was renamed the Common Council, and the Selectmen were renamed Aldermen. With the population growing, the citizens of Boston wanted change in the system of government. Many felt a town meeting form of government was insufficient and impracticable with Boston's increasing population. Logistically speaking a town meeting was near impossible due to the fact there was no hall large enough to fit all eligible voters. The changes brought forward in 1822 for the reorganization of local government were passed with 2797 votes for and 1881 against. Some citizens, including John Quincy Adams, were worried the new manner of government would be susceptible to corruption and that the "pure democracy of a town meeting [was] more suited to the character of the people of New England."

This new government was to have a Mayor as chief executive officer who was elected to a 1 year term, 8 Aldermen, as well as 1 member of each ward being elected to a School Committee. The School Committee, along with the Aldermen and Mayor, would be in charge of education in the City. The Mayor was not an independent actor and instead would operate alongside the Alderman. The Mayor would be presiding officer of this executive board but would not have veto power. The Mayor did however have the sole power to nominate candidates for city office.

The Mayor and Aldermen would serve as the upper part of the City Council, with the lower part being made up of 4 members from each of Boston's 12 wards. These two branches of the Council would have negative power over each other. The upper part taking the role of Selectmen from the old system and the lower part taking the role of the open town meeting. The two parts were to have similar executive power in order to quell concerns from some citizens as to what they saw as a deterioration of the traditional form of New England democracy.

Revised Charter of 1854

Following the incorporation of Boston as a city in 1822 and formation of a city government, the next time large changes were made to local government came in 1854. Boston's population was exploding, from 43298 in 1820 to 138788 people in 1850, and with the increase in population many felt the need to once again reform the government. The main changes made were the expansion of the Board of Aldermen from 8 members to 12, the enlargement of the School Committee to 6 members from each ward, and the removal of the Mayor's right to vote at executive board meetings.

Acts of 1909

The modern government of Boston can be traced to a 1909 [act] of the Massachusetts General Court. In this act the General Court abolished the offices of Aldermen, Street Commissioner, Clerk of the Common Council, Clerk of Committees, and all the subordinate offices of these officials. The act replaced and centralized these positions into the Office of Mayor and City Council. The Council, with approval from the Mayor, was given the power to create offices it saw fit and appoint and remove the holders of these offices. The Council was also given power of approving the budget, as presented by the Mayor. The City Council was also to be given power of land use (with exception of School land), and the purchase and sale of that property.

The Council was to have 9 members. The three candidates with the highest number of votes would serve a term of three years, the three next highest a term of two years, next largest a term of 1 year. The members of the City Council would vote among themselves as to the President of the Council for the municipal year. The Mayor would be elected to office for a 4 yer term and was subjected to the possibility of recall after 2 years.

Modern Institutions

Main articles: Mayor of Boston and Boston City Council

Boston's current charter states there is to be a Mayor, elected to a 4 year term, who is the city's chief executive. The Mayor in capacity as chief executive is to approve any ordinance, order, or resolution from the City Council they see fit. The City Council is to maintain legislative functions, control of the City budget, create agencies, making land use decisions, and serve as check to the Mayor's executive. The City Councilors are to receive a salary that is 50% of the Mayor's.

Sources

• Olin, William, ed. (1909). Acts and Resolves passed by the General Court of Massachusetts in the year 1909. Boston: Secretary of the Commonwealth, Wright and Potter Printing Co.
• Bugbee, James, ed. (1887). The City Government of Boston. Baltimore: John Hopkins University.
• Walton Advertising and Print co., ed. (1922). Boston, one hundred years a city : a collection of views made from rare prints and old photographs showing the changes which have occurred in Boston during the one hundred years of its existence as a city, 1822-1922. State Street Trust Company.
• https://www.cityofboston.gov/images_documents/2007%20the%20charter%20draft20%20%28final%20draft1%20with%20jumps%29_tcm3-16428.pdf

Boston City Charter
Overview
Jurisdiction	City of Boston
Subordinate to	Constitution of Massachusetts
Chambers	Boston City Council
Executive	Mayor of Boston

The Boston City Charter is a series of State statutes which codifies a system of rules for the government of the City of Boston. The Charter is not a typical city constitution but rather a series of amendments, General Court rulings, and case law which form the basis of government. The central organs of the Boston City Charter are the Mayoral Office and City Council. The composition of these offices, their term length, manner of election, and scope of power have changed throughout the years.

History

Before 1822, when Boston was incorporated as a city, it shared a similar manner of government to other New England towns. This meant that Boston, then known as "Town of Boston", was governed by a 7 member Board of Selectmen who would elect then among themselves an executive office of "Intendant". To serve as legislature there was a "Board of Assistants". The Assistants were given a mix of legislative and executive powers and were elected from Boston's then 12 wards. As with other New England towns the town meeting was still to be the primary democratic body of Boston and these executive offices would govern when in between these general sessions.

First City Charter

When Boston voted to become a city in 1822, the position of Intendant was replaced with Mayor, the Board of Assistants was renamed the Common Council, and the Selectmen were renamed Aldermen. With the population growing, the citizens of Boston wanted change in the system of government. Many felt a town meeting form of government was insufficient and impracticable with Boston's increasing population. Logistically speaking a town meeting was near impossible due to the fact there was no hall large enough to fit all eligible voters. The changes brought forward in 1822 for the reorganization of local government were passed with 2797 for and 1881 against. Some citizens, including John Quincy Adams, were worried the new manner of government would be susceptible to corruption and that the "pure democracy of a town meeting [was] more suited to the character of the people of New England."

This new government was to have a Mayor as chief executive officer who was elected to a 1 year term, 8 Aldermen, as well as 1 member of each ward being elected to a School Committee. The School Committee, along with the Aldermen and Mayor, would be in charge of education in the City. The Mayor was not an independent actor and instead would operate alongside the Alderman. The Mayor would be presiding officer of this executive board but would not have veto power. The Mayor did however have the sole power to nominate candidates for city office.

The Mayor and Aldermen would serve as the upper part of the City Council, with the lower part being made up of 4 members from each of Boston's 12 wards. These two branches of the Council would have negative power over each other. The upper part taking the role of Selectmen from the old system and the lower part taking the role of the open town meeting. The two parts were to have similar executive power in order to quell concerns from some citizens as to what they saw as a deterioration of the traditional form of New England democracy.

Revised Charter of 1854

Following the incorporation of Boston as a city in 1822 and formation of a city government, the next time large changes were made to local government came in 1854. Boston's population was exploding, from 43298 in 1820 to 138788 people in 1850, and with the increase in population many felt the need to once again reform the government. The main changes made were th expansion of the Board of Aldermen from 8 members to 12, the enlargement of the School Committee to 6 members from each ward, and the removal of the Mayor's right to vote at board meetings.

Acts of 1909

The modern government of Boston can be traced to a 1909 [act] of the Massachusetts General Court. In this act the General Court abolished the offices of Aldermen, Street Commissioner, Clerk of the Common Council, Clerk of Committees, and all the subordinate offices of these officials. The act replaced and centralized these positions into the Office of Mayor and City Council. The Council, with approval from the Mayor, was given the power to create offices it saw fit and appoint and remove the holders of these offices. The Council was also given power of approving the budget, as presented by the Mayor. The city Council was also to be given power of land use (with exception of School land), and the purchase and sale of that property.

The Council was to have 9 members. The three candidates with the highest number of votes would serve a term of three years, the three next highest a term of two years, next largest a term of 1 year. The members of the City Council would vote among themselves as to the President of the Council for the municipal year. The Mayor would be elected to office for a 4 yer term and was subjected to the possibility of recall after 2 years.

Modern Institutions

Main articles: Mayor of Boston and Boston City Council

Sources

• Olin, William, ed. (1909). Acts and Resolves passed by the General Court of Massachusetts in the year 1909. Boston: Secretary of the Commonwealth, Wright and Potter Printing Co.
• Bugbee, James, ed. (1887). The City Government of Boston. Baltimore: John Hopkins University.
• Walton Advertising and Print co., ed. (1922). Boston, one hundred years a city : a collection of views made from rare prints and old photographs showing the changes which have occurred in Boston during the one hundred years of its existence as a city, 1822-1922. State Street Trust Company.
• https://www.cityofboston.gov/images_documents/2007%20the%20charter%20draft20%20%28final%20draft1%20with%20jumps%29_tcm3-16428.pdf

Boston City Charter
Overview
Jurisdiction	City of Boston
Subordinate to	Constitution of Massachusetts
Chambers	Boston City Council
Executive	Mayor of Boston

The Boston City Charter is a series of State statutes which codifies a system of rules for the government of the City of Boston. The Charter is not a typical city constitution but rather a series of amendments, General Court rulings, and case law which form the basis of government. The central organs of the Boston City Charter are the Mayoral Office and City Council. The composition of these offices, their term length, manner of election, and scope of power have changed throughout the years.

History

Before 1822, when Boston was incorporated as a city, it shared a similar manner of government to other New England towns. This meant that Boston, then known as "Town of Boston", was governed by a 7 member Board of Selectmen who would elect then among themselves an executive office of "Intendant". To serve as legislature there was a "Board of Assistants". The Assistants were given a mix of legislative and executive powers and were elected from Boston's then 12 wards. As with other New England towns the town meeting was still to be the primary democratic body of Boston and these executive offices would govern when in between these general sessions.

First City Charter

When Boston voted to become a city in 1822, the position of Intendant was replaced with Mayor, the Board of Assistants was renamed the Common Council, and the Selectmen were renamed Aldermen. With the population growing, the citizens of Boston wanted change in the system of government. Many felt a town meeting form of government was insufficient and impracticable with Boston's increasing population. Logistically speaking a town meeting was near impossible due to the fact there was no hall large enough to fit all eligible voters. The changes brought forward in 1822 for the reorganization of local government were passed with 2797 for and 1881 against. Some citizens, including John Quincy Adams, were worried the new manner of government would be susceptible to corruption and that the "pure democracy of a town meeting [was] more suited to the character of the people of New England."

This new government was to have a Mayor as chief executive officer who was elected to a 1 year term, 8 Aldermen, as well as 1 member of each ward being elected to a School Committee. The School Committee, along with the Aldermen and Mayor, would be in charge of education in the City. The Mayor was not an independent actor and instead would operate alongside the Alderman. The Mayor would be presiding officer of this executive board but would not have veto power. The Mayor did however have the sole power to nominate candidates for city office.

The Mayor and Aldermen would serve as the upper part of the City Council, with the lower part being made up of 4 members from each of Boston's 12 wards. These two branches of the Council would have negative power over each other. The upper part taking the role of Selectmen from the old system and the lower part taking the role of the open town meeting. The two parts were to have similar executive power in order to quell concerns from some citizens as to what they saw as a deterioration of the traditional form of New England democracy.

Revised Charter of 1854

Following the incorporation of Boston as a city in 1822 and formation of a city government, the next time large changes were made to local government came in 1854. Boston's population was exploding, from 43298 in 1820 to 138788 people in 1850, and with the increase in population many felt the need to once again reform the government.

Acts of 1909

The modern government of Boston can be traced to a 1909 [act] of the Massachusetts General Court. In this act the General Court abolished the offices of Aldermen, Street Commissioner, Clerk of the Common Council, Clerk of Committees, and all the subordinate offices of these officials. The act replaced and centralized these positions into the Office of Mayor and City Council. The Council, with approval from the Mayor, was given the power to create offices it saw fit and appoint and remove the holders of these offices. The Council was also given power of approving the budget, as presented by the Mayor. The city Council was also to be given power of land use (with exception of School land), and the purchase and sale of that property.

The Council was to have 9 members. The three candidates with the highest number of votes would serve a term of three years, the three next highest a term of two years, next largest a term of 1 year. The members of the City Council would vote among themselves as to the President of the Council for the municipal year. The Mayor would be elected to office for a 4 yer term and was subjected to the possibility of recall after 2 years.

Boston City Council

Boston City Charter
Overview
Jurisdiction	City of Boston
Subordinate to	Constitution of Massachusetts
Chambers	Boston City Council
Executive	Mayor of Boston

The Boston City Charter is a series of State statutes which codifies a system of rules for the government of the City of Boston. The Charter is not a typical city constitution but rather a series of amendments, General Court rulings, and case law which form the basis of government. The central organs of the Boston City Charter are the Mayoral Office and City Council. The composition of these offices, their term length, manner of election, and scope of power have changed throughout the years.

History

Before 1822 when Boston was incorporated as a city, it shared a similar manner of government to other New England towns. This meant that Boston, then known as "Town of Boston", was governed by a 7 member Board of Selectmen who would elect then among themselves an executive office of "Intendant". To serve as legislature there was a "Board of Assistants". The Assistants were given a mix of legislative and executive powers and were elected from Boston's then 12 wards. As with other New England towns the town meeting was still to be the primary democratic body of Boston and these executive offices would govern when in between these general sessions.

First City Charter

When Boston voted to become a city in 1822, the position of Intendant was replaced with Mayor, the Board of Assistants was renamed the Common Council, and the Selectmen were renamed Aldermen. With the population growing, the citizens of Boston wanted change in the system of government. Many felt a town meeting form of government was insufficient and impracticable with Boston's increasing population. Logistically speaking a town meeting was near impossible due to the fact there was no hall large enough to fit all eligible voters. The changes brought forward in 1822 for the reorganization of local government were passed with 2797 for and 1881 against. Some citizens, including John Quincy Adams, were worried the new manner of government would be susceptible to corruption and that the "pure democracy of a town meeting [was] more suited to the character of the people of New England."

This new government was to have a Mayor as chief executive officer who was elected to a 1 year term, 8 Aldermen, as well as 1 member of each ward being elected to a School Committee. The School Committee, along with the Aldermen and Mayor, would be in charge of education in the City. The Mayor was not an independent actor and instead would operate alongside the Alderman. The Mayor would be presiding officer of this executive board but would not have veto power. The Mayor did however have the sole power to nominate candidates for city office.

The Mayor and Aldermen would serve as the upper part of the City Council, with the lower part being made up of 4 members from each of Boston's 12 wards. These two branches of the Council would have negative power over each other. The upper part taking the role of Selectmen from the old system and the lower part taking the role of the open town meeting. The two parts were to have similar executive power in order to quell concerns from some citizens as to what they saw as a deterioration of the traditional form of New England democracy.

Acts of 1909

The modern government of Boston can be traced to a 1909 [act] of the Massachusetts General Court. In this act the General Court abolished the offices of Aldermen, Street Commissioner, Clerk of the Common Council, Clerk of Committees, and all the subordinate offices of these officials. The act replaced and centralized these positions into the Office of Mayor and City Council. The Council, with approval from the Mayor, was given the power to create offices it saw fit and appoint and remove the holders of these offices. The Council was also given power of approving the budget, as presented by the Mayor. The city Council was also to be given power of land use (with exception of School land), and the purchase and sale of that property.

The Council was to have 9 members. The three candidates with the highest number of votes would serve a term of three years, the three next highest a term of two years, next largest a term of 1 year. The members of the City Council would vote among themselves as to the President of the Council for the municipal year. The Mayor would be elected to office for a 4 yer term and was subjected to the possibility of recall after 2 years.

Boston City Council

1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 1997 1999 2001 2003 2005 2007 2009 2011 2013 2015 2017 2019

====Puritanism==== https://books.google.com/books?id=gfOFDwAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=new+england+puritans&hl=en&newbks=1&newbks_redir=0&sa=X&ved=2ahUKEwjn6Y_5h8LnAhWkzVkKHam4Av04ChDoATAEegQIBhAC#v=onepage&q=new%20england%20puritans&f=false{Main%7CPuritanism%7CPuritan migration to New England (1620–1640)|Congregationalism in the United States}} The settlers of the Plymouth Colony and the Massachusetts Bay Colony made 17th century New England the center for Puritan migration in the New World. These Puritan settlers shaped their settlements around their theological beliefs with the Massachusetts Bay Colony serving as a theocratic state following the Laws of Moses and the Congregationalism serving as the state religion. In 1643 representatives from settlements from southern New England gathered in Boston to draft a treaty of friendship and mutual defense amongst themselves. Setting out their purpose and uniting principles the assembly declared they had come to New England to settle and "advance the kingdom of our Lord Jesus Christ" and for "propagating and preserving the truth and liberties of the gospel". The Puritan settlers extended their belief of a congregational and presbyterian polity to the civil aspects of government, with the magistrates and offices being held by elected officials chosen by the freemen of the colony. Along with the explicitly biblical laws enforced by the settlers there were additional theocratic ordinances passed which were meant to enact religious discipline. This included laws such as permitted activities on the sabbath, a ban on dancing, to the outlawing of gambling.

The Puritan movement in New England survives today through the United Church of Christ, and in its architectural legacy with many town centers having a Congregational Church as a focal point.

Catholicism

Suffolk County

Boston Thomas Cushing, Samuel Adams, John Hancock, Joseph Warren, Benjamin Church, Nathaniel Appleton

Roxbury William Heath, Aaron Davis

Dorchester Lemuel Robinson

Milton David Rawson, James Boice

Braintree Ebenezer Thayer, Joseph Palmer, John Adams

Weymouth Nathaniel Bailey

Hingham Benjamin Lincoln

Cohasset Isaac Lincoln

Dedham Samuel Dexter, Abner Ellis

Medfield Moses Bullen, Seth Clark

Wrenthem Jabez Fisher, Lemuel Kollock

Brookline Benjamin White, William Thompson, John Goddard

Stoughton Thomas Crane, John Withington, Job Swift

Walpole Enoch Ellis

Medway Johnathan Adams

Needham Eleazer Kingsbury

Bellingham Luke Holbrook

Chelsea Samuel Watts

Essex County

Salem John Pickering, Jonathan Ropes

Danvers Samuel Holten

Ipswich Michael Farley, Daniel Noyes

Newbury Joseph Gerrish

Newburyport Jonathan Greenleaf

Marblehead Jeremiah Lee, Azor Orne, Elbridge Gerry

Lynn Ebenezer Burrill, John Mansfield

Andover Moody Bridges

Beverly Josiah Batchelder

Salisbury Samuel Smith

Haverhill Samuel White, Joseph Haynes

Gloucester Peter Coffin

Topsfield Samuel Smith

Borford Daniel Thurston

Wrenthem Benjamin Fairfield

Manchester Andrew Woodbury

Methuen James Ingles

Middleton Archelaus Fuller

Middlesex County

Cambridge John Winthrop, Thomas Gardner, Abraham Watson, Francis Dana

Charlestown Nathaniel Gorham, Richard Devens, Isaac Foster, David Cheever

Watertown Jonathan Brown, John Remington, Samuel Fisk

Woburn Samuel Wyman

Concord James Barrett, Samuel Whitney, Ephraim Wood Jr

Newton Abraham Fuller, John Pigeon, Edward Durant

Reading John Temple, Benjamin Brown

Marlborough Peter Bent, Edward Barnes, George Brigham

Billerica William Stickney, Ebenezer Bridge

Framingham Joseph Haven, William Brown, Josiah Stone

Lexington Jonas Stone

Chelmsford Simeon Spalding, Jonathan Williams Austin, Samuel Perham

Sherborne Samuel Bullard, Jonathan Leland

Sudbury Thomas Plimpton, Richard Heard, James Mosman

Malden Ebenezer Harnden, John Dexter

Medford Benjamin Hall

Weston Samuel P. Savage, Braddyl Smith, Josiah Smith

Hopkinton Thomas Mellon, Roger Dench, James Mellen

Waltham Jacob Bigelow

Groton James Prescott

Shirley Francis Harris

Pepperell William Prescott

Stow Henry Gardner

Townsend Jonathan Stow, Daniel Taylor

Ashby Jonathan Locke, Samuel Stone

Stoneham Samuel Sprague

Wilmington Timothy Walker

Natick Hezekiah Broad

Dracut William Hildreth

Bedford Joseph Ballard, John Reed

Holliston Abner Perry

Tewsbury Jonathan Brown

Acton Josiah Hayward, Francis Faulkner, Ephriam Hapgood

Westford Joseph Reed, Zaccheus Wright

Littleton Abel Jewett, Robert Harris

Dunstable John Tyng, James Tyng

Lincoln Eleazer Brooks, Samuel Farrar, Abijah Pierce

Hampshire County

Springfield Charles Pynchon, George Pynchon, Jonathan Hale

Wilbrham John Bliss

Ludlow Joseph Miller

West Springfield Benjamin Ely, Chauncy Brewer

Northampton Seth Pomeroy, Joseph Hawley

Southampton Elias Lyman

Hadley Josiah Pierce

South Hadlye Noah Goodman

Amherst Nathaniel Dickerson Jr

Granby Phineas SMith

Hatfield John Dickerson

Whateley Oliver Graves

Deerfield Samuel Barnard Jr

Greenfield Daniel Nash

Shelburne John Taylor

Conway Thomas French

Westfield and Southwick John Mosely, Elisha Parks

Sunderland Israel Hubbard

Montague Moses Gunn

Brimfield TImothy Danielson

South Brimfield Daniel Winchester

Monson Abel Goodale

Northfield Phineas Wright

Granville TImothy Robinson

New Salem William Page

Colrain THomas McGee

Belchertown Samuel How

Ware Joseph Foster

Warwick Samuel Williams

Charlemont Hugh Maxwell

Worthington Nahum Eager

Greenwich John Rea

Norwich Ebenezer Meacham

Plymouth County

Plymouth James Warren, Isaac Lothrop

Scituate Nathaniel Cushing, Gideon Vinal, Barnabas Little

Marshfield Nehemiah Thomas

Middleborough

Conference of New England Governors and Canadian Premiers

Conférence des gouverneurs de la nouvelle angleterre et des premiers ministres de l'est du canada
Nickname	NEG/ECP
Predecessor	New England Governor's Conference
Formation	1973
Type	Intergovernmental organization
Purpose	Cooperation of regional governments
Headquarters	Washington D.C.
Region	New England The Maritimes Eastern Canada
Secretary	Jay Lucey
Executive Assistant	Tom Critzer
Regional Program Coordinator	Lana Bluege
Accountant	Elaine Murchinson
Parent organization	Coalition of Northeastern Governors
Website	https://www.coneg.org/neg-ecp/

Company of Maſſachuſetts-Bay, in Newe-England

Colonial flag
First colonial seal
Native name	Massachusetts Bay Company
Company type	Joint-stock company, Land grant, Colonial Company
Predecessor	Council for New England
Founded	1629
Defunct	1692
Fate	Charter revoked in 1684
Successor	Incorporated into the Province of Massachusetts Bay
Headquarters	London, England then Boston, Massachusetts Bay
Key people	Matthew Cradock. John Endecott, John Winthrop

Convention of Towns and growing crisis

Illustration of the Boston Tea Party

Following the passage of the Townshend Acts the General Court authorized a circular letter denouncing the acts as unconstitutional. The Royal Governor Francis Bernard demanded that the General Court rescind the letter and when the General Court refused he dissolved the assembly. This led to widespread violence and rioting throughout Boston. Royal officers fled to Castle William and the Crown authorized more troops to be sent to the province. The Sons of Liberty stated that they desired armed resistance to the Royal Authorities while other more conservative elements of society desired a peaceful political approach.

With the General Court dissolved it was resolved at a Boston town meeting to have the towns of the Province assemble in convention. Delegates met at Faneuil Hall for six days in September, with Thomas Cushing serving as chairman. Despite the insistence from more radical Patriot for armed resistance the more moderate factions of the convention won out and militant action was voted down.

In 1773 in defiance of the Tea Act colonists of Massachusetts Bay's Sons of Liberty organized a meeting at the Old South Meetinghouse. Thousands of people attended and there Samuel Adams organized a protest at Boston harbor. Dressed as American Indians the colonists stormed ships stationed in the harbor and dumped the cargo of tea into the water. After the protest, later known as theBoston Tea Party, Hutchinson was replaced in May 1774 by General Thomas Gage. Gage was well received at first, but his reputation rapidly became worse with the Patriots as he began to implement the Intolerable Acts. The Intolerable acts, which included the Massachusetts Government Act, dissolved the legislature, and closed the port of Boston until reparations were paid for the dumped tea. The port closure did great damage to the provincial economy and led to a wave of sympathetic assistance from other colonies.

The Intolerable Acts only increased the crisis in the Province. With the dissolution of the General Court and the blockade of the Port of Boston colonists insisted that their constitutional rights were being destroyed. The colonists of Massachusetts Bay, going back to the founding of the Massachusetts Bay Colony and the Plymouth Colony had quasi-democratic control of their government. The General Court, while lacking executive authority and authority over the militia, had significant power. The colonists were permitted to have control over the the treasury and spending and could pass and formulate laws. Anything passed by the assembly was subject to veto by the Royal Governor, however with the General Court having control over spending they could withhold the pay of the Royal officials as leverage. This resulted in the Royal Governor being sidelined at times to little more than a figurehead.

With mounting political turmoil the more radical factions of colonial society began to ready themselves for armed confrontation. This crisis culminated in the Battles of Lexington and Concord in April 1775.

Provincial Congress

Main articles: Massachusetts Provincial Congress and Boston campaign

With the passage of the Massachusetts Government Act, which resulted in the dissolution of the General Court, the colonists of Massachusetts Bay held conventions throughout the Province. These conventions were organized by county and had delegates from each town. Each convention drafted resolutions which were to be sent to the Royal Governor in Boston. These resolutions differed from county to county however they had man similar themes and sentiments. The delegates reiterated their desire for the continuation of their constitutional government which had been existence since the Mayflower Compact, the Charter of the Massachusetts Bay Company, and the Massachusetts Charter. The colonists declared their allegiance to the King, George III. They said that they wished to return to their previous arrangement of self-governance and for the removal of the recent acts of Parliament. The colonists said that unless their constitutional rights and privileges were restored they were absolved of their allegiance to the Crown. They declared that their rights would be respected, and if not, they would resist with force. This included the total boycott of British goods, the disruption of local courts, and the kidnapping of royal officials.

John Trumbull's 1834 painting of Joseph Warren's death at the Battle of Bunker Hill

The most important resolves passed at the conventions was the desire to form a Provincial Congress in place of the dissolved assembly of the General Court. With the Battles of Lexington and Concord there was no doubt that these issues were irreconcilable outside of either a greater military confrontation or a full return of what the colonists saw as their constitutional rights.

In October of 1774 in Salem delegates from across the province met to reform their dissolved assembly. This new congress was to be the continuation of their constitutional government and a rival government to the Royal one in Boston. The congress selected John Hancock as its first president (then called chairman) and Benjamin Lincoln as Clerk. Setting up an alternative legal structure, the congress installed judges, tax collectors, constables, and other officials. The new congress also assumed control of the militia. It instructed all town in the province to train troops and elect new officers to commission. An executive standing committee and a Committee of Safety were also instituted to govern the province when Congress was not in session. Styled the "Massachusetts Bay Provincial Congress of Deputies", the congress was the new executive and legislative governance in Patriot controlled territory.

The Provincial Congress went through different formations in its six years of existence, with shifting structures of authority and type of governance. The executive standing committee was replaced in the Second Congress with a renewed Committee of Safety which acted as the de facto governmental authority, in charge of the militia and governance in between sessions. The third Congress saw a return to legislative supremacy and a decrease in power of the executive. Joseph Warren was elected as the congress' second President and James Warren as its third. The government organized the defense of the province and engaged with the royal government in military conflict along with the other New England colonies, such as in the Battle of Bunker Hill where its Second President, Joseph Warren, was killed in action. Its army, the Massachusetts Militia was the largest armed Patriot fighting force in New England and made up the core of what was then referred to as the Army of New England. With the expulsion of British forces following the Siege of Boston the Provincial Congress remained the only governmental force in control in the Province.

Forming the Commonwealth

Main articles: Constitution of Massachusetts, Massachusetts Constitutional Convention of 1779–1780, and Commonwealth of Massachusetts

Calls for a constitutional convention began when the Provincial Congress was declared in 1774. With the pressures of the war and political uncertainty these efforts were postponed. Berkshire County in the far western part of Massachusetts Bay was exceptionally vocal in its desire to form a new constitution. In a dispatch to the Provincial Congress the delegates of Pittsfield rejected not only the royal colonial authorities but also the legitimacy of the previous charters with which the Provincial Congress claimed its legitimacy. The letter stated that the only political legitimacy a state or constitution could find would be with the people of a province. With Massachusetts Bay declaring independence from the Kingdom of Great Britain in May of 1776 the push for a newly codified constitution increased.

In September of 1776 the General Court petitioned the towns of Massachusetts Bay to put forth a vote on whether or not a convention should be called. In 1777 it was agreed that a convention would be formed to draft a new constitution. The General Court, which consisted of the Governor's Council and House of Representatives, decided to form a committee which would be tasked to write a constitution. In the winter of 1778 the General Court decided that the draft formulated from the constitutional committee would be put before the electorate of Massachusetts Bay and it would need to be accepted by 2/3rds of voters.

The first draft of the convention was rejected. In this first draft the state would consist of a legislature called the General Court which had two houses, a House of Representatives and an indirectly elected senate that would also serve as a governor's council. The Governor would not have the power of veto and would need to have any action confirmed by the Senate. There were some progressive elements of the constitution however, the Senate would be apportioned based on population and the House would no longer have a property requirement. Also a point of contention was the fact that there was no Bill of Rights. When the vote was put before the populace it was rejected by an 83% to 17% margin.

In 1779 another question was put to the electorate. This time the people were asked if they favored another convention, apportioned by population, to meet and formulate a new draft of the constitution. The question passed by a 72% to 28% margin. This next convention met from September 1, 1779 to June 16, 1780. At the time the war was not going well for the Patriot forces. The Penobscot Expedition had ended in failure, and the Kingdom of France had yet to send its larger contingent of military support. Even amidst the political uncertainty the convention was assembled with 312 members.

John Adams wrote the draft of the new constitution and the convention accepted it with minimal amendments. The draft was then put to the various town meetings of the province. The town meetings were to decide on the constitution in pieces, rather than as a whole, and add any changes they thought were necessary. The Adams version was then accepted by the convention on June 15th, 1780. In elections held in October 1780, John Hancock was elected the first Governor of Massachusetts along with representatives to the commonwealth's first General Court.

• Morison, Samuel (1917). A History of the Constitution of Massachusetts. Wright & Potter Printing Co.

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Sports

Main article: Sports in New England

New England has a strong heritage of athletics with many now internationally popular sports having been invented and codified in the region. Sports originating in New England include Basketball, Volleyball, and American Football.

Football is the most popular sport in the region and was originally developed by Walter Camp in New Haven, Connecticut in the 1870s and 1880s. The New England Patriots, based in Foxborough, Massachusetts, are the most popular professional sports team in New England. The Patriots have won 6 Super Bowl championships and are one of the most winning teams in the national Football League. There are also high profile collegiate and High School football rivalries in New England. These games, most often played on Thanksgiving Day are some of the oldest rivalries in the United States. The Harvard University and Yale University football rivalry, dubbed "The Game", is the third most played NCAA Division 1 rivalry. The high school rivalry between Wellesley High School and Needham High School in Massachusetts, is considered to be the nation's oldest football rivalry first beginning in 1882.

Baseball is considered to be one of New England's most beloved pastimes. Before the advent of its modern rules a different form of baseball was played. Called The Massachusetts Game, this version of baseball was an early rival of the Knickerbocker Rules of New York and was played throughout New England. In 1869 there were 59 teams throughout the region which played according to the Massachusetts rules. When the New York rules became more popular throughout the United States professional and semi-professional clubs began to appear. Early teams such as the Providence Grays, the Worcester Worcesters, and the Hartford Dark Blues did not last long, however other teams such as the Boston Braves and the Boston Red Sox grew to renown. The Red Sox and their home field Fenway Park are some of the most storied institutions in professional baseball in America. Fenway Park, built in 1912, has been called the "Cathedral of Baseball" and is the oldest ballpark still in use in the MLB. The Yankees–Red Sox rivalry is considered the most famous sports rivalry in the world. The rivalry attracts significant media attention are some of the most watched games. Other professional baseball teams in the region include the Hartford Yard Goats, Lowell Spinners, New Hampshire Fisher Cats, Vermont Lake Monsters, Portland Sea Dogs, and the Pawtucket Red Sox.

Boston Marathon

New Hampshire Motor Speedway is an oval racetrack that has hosted several NASCAR and American Championship Car Racing races, whereas Lime Rock Park in Connecticut is a traditional road racing venue home of sports car races. Events at these venues have had the "New England" moniker, such as the NASCAR New England 300 and New England 200, the IndyCar Series New England Indy 200, and the American Le Mans Series New England Grand Prix.

Professional and semi-professional sports teams

The major professional sports teams in New England are based in Massachusetts: the Boston Red Sox, the New England Patriots (based in Foxborough, Massachusetts), the Boston Celtics, the Boston Bruins, the New England Revolution (based in Foxborough), and the Boston Cannons. Hartford had a professional hockey team, the Hartford Whalers, from 1975 until they moved to North Carolina in 1997. WNBA team the Connecticut Sun is based in southeastern Connecticut at the Mohegan Sun resort, which is also home to the professional indoor lacrosse team the New England Black Wolves. New England is also home to the Boston Pride and the Connecticut Whale which represent two of the five professional women's hockey teams in the United States.

There are also minor league baseball and hockey teams based in larger cities, such as the Bridgeport Bluefish (baseball), the Bridgeport Sound Tigers (hockey), the Connecticut Tigers (baseball), the Hartford Wolf Pack (hockey), the Hartford Yard Goats (baseball), the (baseball), the Maine Mariners (hockey), the New Britain Bees (baseball), the (baseball), the (baseball), the (baseball), the Providence Bruins (hockey), the Springfield Thunderbirds (hockey), the (baseball), and the Worcester Railers (hockey).

The NBA G League fields the Maine Red Claws based in Portland, Maine. The Springfield Armor in Springfield, Massachusetts, previously played in the region. The Red Claws are affiliated with the Boston Celtics, and the Armor was affiliated with the Brooklyn Nets, prior to relocating to Grand Rapids, Michigan, to become the Grand Rapids Drive. New England was also represented in the Premier Basketball League by the Vermont Frost Heaves of Barre, Vermont, until they folded in 2011.

Thanksgiving Day high school football rivalries date back to the 19th century, and the Harvard-Yale rivalry ("The Game") is the oldest rivalry in college football. The Boston Marathon is run on Patriots' Day every year; it is a New England cultural institution and the oldest annual marathon in the world. The race offers far less prize money than many other marathons, but its difficulty and long history make it one of the world's most prestigious marathons.

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Sports

Main article: Sports in New England

New England has a strong heritage of athletics with many now internationally popular sports having been invented and codified in the region. Sports developed in New England include Basketball, Volleyball, and American Football.

Harvard vs. Yale football game in 2003

Football is the most popular sport in the region and was developed by Walter Camp in New Haven, Connecticut in the 1870s and 1880s. The New England Patriots, based in Foxborough, Massachusetts, are the most popular professional sports team in New England. The Patriots have won 6 Super Bowl championships and are one of the most winning teams in the National Football League. There are also high profile collegiate and High School football rivalries in New England. These games, most often played on Thanksgiving Day are some of the oldest rivalries in the United States. The Harvard University and Yale University football rivalry, dubbed "The Game", is the third most played NCAA Division 1 rivalry. The high school rivalry between Wellesley High School and Needham High School in Massachusetts, is considered to be the nation's oldest football rivalry first beginning in 1882.

Fenway Park

Baseball is considered to be one of New England's most beloved pastimes. Before the advent of its modern rules a different form of baseball was played. Called The Massachusetts Game, this version of baseball was an early rival of the Knickerbocker Rules of New York and was played throughout New England. In 1869 there were 59 teams throughout the region which played according to the Massachusetts rules. When the New York rules became more popular throughout the United States professional and semi-professional clubs began to appear. Early teams such as the Providence Grays, the Worcester Worcesters, and the Hartford Dark Blues did not last long, however other teams such as the Boston Braves and the Boston Red Sox grew to renown. The Red Sox and their home field Fenway Park are some of the most storied institutions in professional baseball in America. Fenway Park, built in 1912, has been called a "shrine" and is the oldest ballpark still in use in the MLB. The Yankees–Red Sox rivalry is considered the most famous sports rivalry in the world. The rivalry attracts significant media attention are some of the most watched games. Other professional baseball teams in the region include the Hartford Yard Goats, Lowell Spinners, New Hampshire Fisher Cats, Vermont Lake Monsters, Portland Sea Dogs, Bridgeport Bluefish, New Britain Bees, and the Pawtucket Red Sox.

Basketball was first developed in Springfield, Massachusetts by James Naismith in 1891. Naismith was attempting to create a game which could be played indoors so athletes could keep fit during New England winters. Becoming one of the most popular sports in the world, basketball is also the official sport of Massachusetts. The Boston Celtics, founded in 1946, is the most successful NBA team winning 17 titles. The NBA G League team the Maine Red Claws is based in Portland, Maine. The Women's National Basketball Association's Connecticut Sun is based in Uncasville, Connecticut. The Springfield Armor in Springfield, Massachusetts, previously played in the region. The Red Claws are affiliated with the Boston Celtics, and the Armor was affiliated with the Brooklyn Nets, prior to relocating to Grand Rapids, Michigan, to become the Grand Rapids Drive. New England was also represented in the Premier Basketball League by the Vermont Frost Heaves of Barre, Vermont, until they folded in 2011. The UConn Huskies women's basketball team is the most successful women's collegiate team in the nation winning 11 NCAA Division 1 titles. The Basketball Hall of Fame is located in Springfield, Massachusetts.

Bill Russell and Red Auerbach of the Boston Celtics.

Ice Hockey is also a popular sport in the region. The Boston Bruins founded in 1924 were an Original Six team and have an historic rivalry with the Montreal Canadiens. The Bruins play in the TD Garden, a venue they share with the Boston Celtics, and in the Boston Garden before its demolition in 1998. The Hartford Whalers, also known as the "New England Whalers", played in Connecticut from 1972-1997. College hockey is also a popular spectator sport, with Boston's Beanpot tournament between Northeastern University, Boston University, Harvard University, and Boston College being held annually at the TD Garden. Other hockey teams include the Maine Mariners, Providence Bruins, Springfield Thunderbirds, Worcester Railers, Bridgeport Sound Tigers, and the Hartford Wolf Pack. The Connecticut Whale hockey team along with the Boston Pride are two of the four teams of the National Women's Hockey League. The largest ice hockey and ice skating facility, the New England Sports Center, is located in Marlborough, Massachusetts and is home to one of the oldest ice skating clubs in the United States, the Skating Club of Boston.

Volleyball was invented in Holyoke, Massachusetts in 1895 by William G. Morgan. Morgan was an instructor at a YMCA and sought to create an indoor game for his athletes. Originally called Mintonette, volleyball was based on the game of badminton and was spread as a sport through YMCA facilities. The international Volleyball Hall of Fame is located in Holyoke. Volleyball has also been an Olympic Sport since 1964.

Head of the Charles Regatta in 2017

Rowing, Sailing, and Yacht racing are also popular events in New England. The Head of the Charles head race is held on the Charles River in October every year. Considered one of the most prestigious rowing races in the world the races attract over 10,000 athletes and over 200,000 spectators. There are numerous boathouses on the Charles with many local clubs and collegiate teams using the Charles for rowing continually since before 1851. Sailing regattas include the Newport Bermuda Race, the Marblehead to Halifax Ocean Race, and the Single-Handed Trans-Atlantic Race. The Newport and Marblehead races are considered some of the most important and prestigious in the world.

New Hampshire Motor Speedway is an oval racetrack that has hosted several NASCAR and American Championship Car Racing races, whereas Lime Rock Park in Connecticut is a traditional road racing venue home of sports car races. Events at these venues have had the "New England" moniker, such as the NASCAR New England 300 and New England 200, the IndyCar Series New England Indy 200, and the American Le Mans Series New England Grand Prix.

The Boston Marathon is run on Patriots' Day every year; it is a New England cultural institution and the oldest annual marathon in the world. Starting in 1897 the Marathon is a World Marathon Major and is operated by the Boston Athletic Association. The race route goes from Hopkinton, Massachusetts, through Greater Boston and finishing at Copley Square in Boston. The race offers far less prize money than many other marathons, but its difficulty and long history make it one of the world's most prestigious marathons. With around a half-million spectators it is New England's largest sporting event.

Museums, historical societies, and libraries

Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

There are many museums located throughout New England, especially in the Greater Boston area. These museums include privately held collections as well as public institutions. Most notable of these museums are the Museum of Fine Arts, Institute of Contemporary Art, Boston, the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum, and the Peabody Essex Museum.

The Boston Public Library is the largest public library in the region with over 8 million materials in its collection. The largest academic research library in the world is the Harvard Library in Cambridge, Massachusetts. The W. E. B. Du Bois Library of the University of Massachusetts Amherst is the tallest academic library in the world.

There are also many historical societies in the region as well. Historic New England operates museums and historic sites in the name of historical preservation. Many properties belong to HNE include preserved house museums belonging to prominent figures in New England and American history. Other societies include the Massachusetts Historical Society, the Essex Institute, American Antiquarian Society, and The Bostonian Society. The Massachusetts Historical Society, founded in 1791, is the oldest operating in the United States. Many cities and towns across New England operate their own historical societies focused on historical preservation of local sites and the recording of local history.

Transport

Each of the New England states has its own Department of Transportation which plans and develops systems for transport. Due to the relative small size of New England States and the overlap of metropolitan areas in the region, often these Transportation Authorities operate across state and municipal lines. The Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA), the body which oversees public transport in the Greater Boston area, is the largest of these agencies and operates all over eastern Massachusetts and in Rhode Island. The MBTA oversees the oldest public subway system, (Tremont Street Subway, and the second most used line (Green Line) in the United States. Coastal Connecticut also makes use of the Metropolitan Transportation Authority of New York due to the connection of that region to New York's economy. The MTA operates the Metro-North Railroad in coordination with the Connecticut Department of Transportation. The CTDOT also operates a rail line along its southern coast terminating in Old Saybrook and New London.

Amtrak provides interstate rail service throughout New England. Boston is the northern terminus of the Northeast Corridor. The Vermonter connects Vermont to Massachusetts and Connecticut, while the Downeaster links Maine to Boston. The long-distance Lake Shore Limited train has two eastern termini after splitting in Albany, one of which is Boston. This provides rail service on the former Boston and Albany Railroad, which runs between its namesake cities. The rest of the Lake Shore Limited continues to New York City.

Bus Transportation is also available in most urban areas and is governed by regional or local authorities. The Pioneer Valley Transportation Authority and the MetroWest Regional Transit Authority are examples of public bus transport which support local more suburban and rural communities.

South Station in Boston is the regions busiest public transportation center after Logan International Airport. The station is a major center for bus, rail, and light rail lines.

Logan Airport is the busiest transport hub in the region in terms of number of passengers and total cargo. Opened in 1923 the airport is located in East Boston and Winthrop, Massachusetts. Logan is a hub for Cape Air and Delta Air Lines, and a Focus city for Jetblue. it is also the 16th busiest airport in the United States. Other airports in the region include Burlington International Airport, Bradley International Airport, T. F. Green Airport, Manchester–Boston Regional Airport, and Portland International Jetport.

Literature

New Englanders have made significant contributions to American Literature and English Literature worldwide. The first printing press in British North America was set up in Cambridge, Massachusetts by Stephen Daye in the 17th Century. Writers in colonial New England produced many works on both relgious subjects, particularly to the Puritan tradition, as well as to Enlightenment ideas during the American Revolution. The literature of New England has had an enduring influence on American literature in general, with themes that are emblematic of the larger concerns of American letters, such as religion, race, the individual versus society, social repression, and nature.

19th Century New England was a center for progressive ideals and many Abolitionist and Transcendentalist tracts were produced. Leading Transcendentalists such as Henry David Thoreau, Ralph Waldo Emerson, and Frederic Henry Hedge were from New England. Harriet Beecher Stowe's novel Uncle Tom's Cabin was an influential book in the spread of abolitionist ideas and is said to have "laid the groundwork for the Civil War. Other prominent New Englander novelists include John Irving, Edgar Allen Poe, Louisa May Alcott, Sarah Orne Jewett, HP Lovecraft, Cormac McCarthy, Annie Proulx, Steven King, Jack Kerouac, George V. Higgins, and Nathaniel Hawthorne.

Boston was the center of the American publishing industry for some years, largely on the strength of its local writers and before it was overtaken by New York in the middle of the nineteenth century. Boston remains the home of publishers Houghton Mifflin and Pearson Education, and it was the longtime home of literary magazine The Atlantic Monthly. Merriam-Webster is based in Springfield, Massachusetts. Yankee is a magazine for New Englanders based in Dublin, New Hampshire.

Many New Englander poets ave also been preeminent in American Poetry. Prominent poets include Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, David Lindsay-Abaire, Annie Proulx, Edward Arlington Robinson, Amy Lowell, John Cheever, Emily Dickinson, Elizabeth Bishop, Stanley Kunitz, EE Cummings, Edna St. Vincent Millay, Robert P. T. Coffin, and Richard Wilbur. Robert Frost who was descibred as an "artistic institution" frequently wrote about rural New England life. The school Confessional poetry features prominent New England writers including Robert Lowell, Anne Sexton, and Sylvia Plath.

Fine Arts

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_School_(painting) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cos_Cob_art_colony https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenwich_Art_Society https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Mountain_art https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boston_Expressionism