Gender inequality edit
Gender as a social inequality is whereby women and men are treated differently due to masculinity and femininity by dividing labor, assigning roles, and responsibilities and allocating social rewards. Sex- and gender-based prejudice and discrimination, called sexism, are major contributing factors to social inequality. Most societies, even agricultural ones, have some sexual division of labour and gender-based division of labour tends to increase during industrialization.[1] The emphasis on gender inequality is born out of the deepening division in the roles assigned to men and women, particularly in the economic, political and educational spheres. Women are underrepresented in political activities and decision making processes in most states in both the Global North and Global South.[2]
Gender discrimination, especially concerning the lower social status of women, has been a topic of serious discussion not only within academic and activist communities but also by governmental agencies and international bodies such as the United Nations. These discussions seek to identify and remedy widespread, institutionalized barriers to access for women in their societies. By making use of gender analysis, researchers try to understand the social expectations, responsibilities, resources and priorities of women and men within a specific context, examining the social, economic and environmental factors which influence their roles and decision-making capacity. By enforcing artificial separations between the social and economic roles of men and women, the lives of women and girls are negatively impacted and this can have the effect of limiting social and economic development.[3]
Cultural ideals about women's work can also affect men whose outward gender expression is considered "feminine" within a given society. Transgender and gender-variant persons may express their gender through their appearance, the statements they make, or official documents they present. In this context, gender normativity, which is understood as the social expectations placed on us when we present particular bodies, produces widespread cultural/institutional devaluations of trans identities, homosexuality and femininity.[4] Trans persons, in particular, have been defined as socially unproductive and disruptive.[5]
Health care edit
Health inequalities are in many cases related to access to health care. In industrialized nations, health inequalities are most prevalent in countries that have not implemented a universal health care system, such as the United States. Because of the US health care system is heavily privatized, access to health care is dependent upon one's economic capital; Health care is not a right, it is a commodity that can be purchased through private insurance companies (or that is sometimes provided through an employer). The way health care is organized in the U.S. contributes to health inequalities based on gender, socioeconomic status and race/ethnicity.[6] As Wright and Perry assert, "social status differences in health care are a primary mechanism of health inequalities". In the United States, over 48 million people are without medical care coverage.[7] This means that almost one sixth of the population is without health insurance, mostly people belonging to the lower classes of society.
While universal access to health care may not completely eliminate health inequalities,[8][9] it has been shown that it greatly reduces them.[10] In this context, privatization gives individuals the 'power' to purchase their own health care (through private health insurance companies), but this leads to social inequality by only allowing people who have economic resources to access health care. Citizens are seen as consumers who have a 'choice' to buy the best health care they can afford; in alignment with neoliberal ideology, this puts the burden on the individual rather than the government or the community.[11]
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In countries that have a universal health care system, health inequalities have been reduced. In Canada, for example, equity in the availability of health services has been improved dramatically through Medicare. People don't have to worry about how they will pay health care, or rely on emergency rooms for care, since health care is provided for the entire population. However, inequality issues still remain. For example, not everyone has the same level of access to services.[12][8][9] Inequalities in health are not, however, only related to access to health care. Even if everyone had the same level of access, inequalities may still remain. This is because health status is a product of more than just how much medical care people have available to them. While Medicare has equalized access to health care by removing the need for direct payments at the time of services, which improved the health of low status people, inequities in health are still prevalent in Canada.[13] This may be due to the state of the current social system, which bear other types of inequalities such as economic, racial and gender inequality.
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References edit
- ^ Struening, Karen (2002). New Family Values: Liberty, Equality, Diversity. New York: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-1231-3.
- ^ "About us". Un.org. 31 December 2003. Retrieved 17 July 2013.
- ^ Issac Kwaka Acheampong & Sidharta Sarkar. Gender, Poverty & Sustainable Livelihood. p. 108.
- ^ Stanley, E. A. (2011). " Fugitive flesh: Gender self-determination, queer abolition, and trans resistance" in E. Stanley, A. and N. Smith (eds.), Captive genders: Trans embodiment and the prison industrial complex. Edinburgh, UK: AK Press.
- ^ Irving, D. (2008). "Normalized transgressions: Legitimizing the transsexual body as productive". Radical History Review. 2008 (100): 38–59. doi:10.1215/01636545-2007-021.
- ^ Wright, Eric R.; Perry, Brea L. (2010). "Medical Sociology and Health Services Research: Past Accomplishments and Future Policy Challenges". Journal of Health and Social Behavior. 51 Suppl: 107–119. doi:10.1177/0022146510383504. PMID 20943576. S2CID 31976923.
- ^ "US Census".
- ^ a b Guessous, I.; Gaspoz, J.M.; Theler, J.M.; Wolff, H. (November 2012). "High prevalence of forgoing healthcare for economic reasons in Switzerland: A population-based study in a region with universal health insurance coverage". Preventive Medicine. 55 (5): 521–527. doi:10.1016/j.ypmed.2012.08.005. ISSN 0091-7435. PMID 22940614.
- ^ a b Guessous, Idris; Luthi, Jean-Christophe; Bowling, Christopher Barrett; Theler, Jean-Marc; Paccaud, Fred; Gaspoz, Jean-Michel; McClellan, William (2014). "Prevalence of Frailty Indicators and Association with Socioeconomic Status in Middle-Aged and Older Adults in a Swiss Region with Universal Health Insurance Coverage: A Population-Based Cross-Sectional Study". Journal of Aging Research. 2014: 198603. doi:10.1155/2014/198603. ISSN 2090-2204. PMC 4227447. PMID 25405033.
- ^ Veugeulers, P; Yip, A. (2003). "Socioeconomic Disparities in Health Care Use: Does Universal Coverage Reduce Inequalities in Health?". Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health. 57 (6): 107–119. doi:10.1136/jech.57.6.424. PMC 1732477. PMID 12775787.
- ^ Hacker, Jacob S. (2006). The Great Risk Shift: The Assault on American Jobs, Families, Health Care, and Retirement – and How You Can Fight Back. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-517950-7.
- ^ Grant, Karen R. (1994). Health and Health Care in Essentials of Contemporary Sociology. Toronto: Copp Clark Longman. p. 275.
- ^ Grant, K.R. (1998). The Inverse Care Law in Canada: Differential Access Under Universal Free Health Insurance. Toronto: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 118–134.