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User:Relationships Behind Bars/Incarcerated Individuals Relationships

Incarcerated Individuals' Relationships


A prison or jail is a state or federally run facility in which convicted offenders are confined as a form of punishment. Although the population of incarcerated men and women continues to increase[1], there is little research on the effects of incarceration on inmates' social worlds. However, it has been demonstrated that inmate's relationships play a seminal role in their well-being both during and after incarceration[2], making such research important in improving their overall health, and lowering rates of recidivism[3].

Non-Romantic Social Support

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Surrogate Families

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Religion While Incarcerated

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Education While Incarcerated

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Intimate Partner Relationships

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Types of Romantic Relationships

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Benefits of Romantic Relationships

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Barriers to Romantic Relationships

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Incarcerated Individuals as Parents

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Growing Numbers

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Parent - Child Contact

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Financial Impact

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Relationships and Reoffending

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Though some relationships have protective factors that buffer against re-entry into the criminal justice system, others contribute to the propensity to re-offend. Relationships among families, peers, communities, and romantic partners all contribute in a unique way to predict how successfully an individual reintegrates into society [4] [5] [6]

Social Context Upon Release

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Upon release, the communities that offenders find themselves in can impact the success of reentry. It is often the case that offenders are released into areas that are socially isolated and low in resources. These disadvantaged neighborhoods are shown to be a risk factor for recidivism [5]. The result is an inability to use social networks in order to integrate into new communities and use social relationships to advance employment opportunities [7]. Furthermore, researchers have theorized that placement of offenders in disadvantaged neighborhoods where members of the community have weak attachments to their jobs likely exposes newly released prisoners to social circumstances that are conducive to criminal activity [8]. It has further been theorized that disadvantaged neighborhoods to which offenders are released are often low in informal control, resulting in less informal sanction for deviant behaviour, which can open the pathway for re-offending [9]. Social disorganization further provides a poor “normative environment “ (p. 170) [10], as there is a presence of conflicting information of moral standards. When prisoners are released into their pre-incarceration environment, there exists the potential to re-initiate contact with negatively social influences, possibly leading towards re-offending [11].

Social Costs as Deterrents

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Many have proposed that the need for social contact is essential to human well-being and functioning [12] [13]. Offenders who enter the prison system are forced to re-arrange their social connections with fellow inmates and correctional staff (Windzio, 2006). Specifically, when first-time offenders experience the negative social impacts of incarceration, these experiences serve to deter individuals from reoffending and have been identified as the social costs of imprisonment [6]. Common experiences that result in the pain of social costs during incarceration include deprivation of social contact with the outside world (e.g. family and friends), loss of autonomy, and negative social interactions within the confounds of incarceration (i.e. physical violence) [14] [6]. Research on first-time offenders indicates that the most costly social pain experienced within these populations is the deprivation of contact with persons outside the prison facility, highlighting the importance of positive social associations outside of prison walls as deterrents of recidivism [6].

Visitation

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Visitations by significant social contacts (e.g. family members, peers) can serve as reminders of positive associations with the outside world. Social constraints, isolation, and traumas experienced while incarcerated may contribute to risks in recidivism [15], and visitation by significant persons are, to some degree, effective in protecting against these factors [4]. Research indicates that visitation from significant others and spouses are most effective in reducing recidivism, followed by visits from friends and non-spousal family members [4]. However, findings indicate that after 3 to 4 visits, the positive effects of visitation on recidivism decreases [4].This can potentially be attributed to the reduction in pain from social costs due to lack of social deprivation. Visitation during incarceration assists in maintaining social ties, which are essential to the availability of social support, social networking to acquire resources, and in turn successful reentry upon release from prison [16].

Marriage and Family

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The role of marriage has been investigated in relation to recidivism. Research indicates that early marriages (age at marriage) that are cohesive in nature can be protective against recidivism [17]. Individuals who engage in less recidivistic behaviour are also less likely to be divorced or separated, or to have engaged in impulsive decision-making to marry [17]. These findings indicate that while marriage alone is not a protective factor against re-offending, marriages with strong foundations and entered with consideration have to potential to reduce recidivism. The association between healthy marriages and reduced recidivism has initiated marriage and relationship skills educational programs for incarcerated population to prepare them for reintegration, such as The Oklahoma Marriage Initiative.

Similarly, community-based family strengthening models have been implemented in order to promote connectedness among family members so as to better support relatives who might be at risk to re-offend [12]. As research has indicated family connectedness to be an important factor in psychological well-being and positive outcomes, emphasis on imparting knowledge about the experience of incarcerated family members is of high importance in order to maintain high levels of social support within the family system [12]. Results from these programs indicate that a focus on connectedness within families was associated with gains in relationship skills, as well as recidivism, demonstrating the importance of familial support and understanding in desistance [12].

References

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  1. ^ Carson, Ann; Golinelli, Daniela. "Prisoners in 2012 - Advance Counts" (PDF). http://www.bjs.gov. Department of Justice. Retrieved 25 September 2014. {{cite web}}: External link in |website= (help)
  2. ^ Travis, Jeremy (2003). Prisoners once removed: The impact of incarceration and reentry on children, families and communities. Washington, D.C.: The Urban Institute Press. p. 76. {{cite book}}: |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  3. ^ Bales, W.; Mears, D. (2008). "Inmate social ties and the transition to society: Does visitation reduce recidivism?". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. doi:10.1177/0022427808317574.
  4. ^ a b c d Mears, Daniel P.; Cochran, Joshua C.; Siennick, Sonja E.; Bales, William D. (2012). "Prison visitation and recidivism,". Justice Quarterly. 29 (6): 888–918.
  5. ^ a b Morenoff, Jeffrey D.; Harding, David J. (2014). "Incarceration, prisoner reentry, and communities". Annual Review of Sociology. 40 (1): 411–429.
  6. ^ a b c d Windzio, M. (2006). "Is there a deterrent effect of pains of imprisonment?: The impact of 'social costs' of first incarceration on the hazard rate of recidivism". Punishment & Society. 8 (3): 341–364.
  7. ^ Wilson, William J. (1996). When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor. New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.
  8. ^ Drakulich, Kevin M.; Crutchfield, Robert D.; Matsueda, Ross L.; Rose, Kristin (2012). "Instability, informal control, and criminogenic situations: Community effects of returning prisoners". Crime, Law and Social Change. 57: 493–519.
  9. ^ Rose, Dina R.; Clear, Todd R. (1998). "Incarceration, social capital, and crime: Implications for social disorganization theory". Criminology. 36 (441–480).
  10. ^ Clifford, Shaw R.; McKaw, Henry D. (1942). Juvenile delinquency and urban areas, a study of rates of delinquents in relation to differential characteristics of local communities in American cities. Chicago, Illinois: The University of Chicago Press.
  11. ^ Kirk, D.S. (2009). "A natural experiment on residential change and recidivism: Lessons from Hurricane Katrina". American Sociological Review. 74: 484–505.
  12. ^ a b c d McKiernan, P.; Shamblen, S.R.; Collins, D.A.; Stradler, T.N.; Kokoski, C. (2012). "Creating lasting family connections: Reducing recidivism with community-based family strengthening model". Criminal Justice Policy Review. 24 (1): 94–122.
  13. ^ Rocque, Michael; Biere, David M.; Posick, Chad; MacKenzie, Doris L. (2013). "Unraveling change: Social bonds and recidivism among released offenders". Victims & Offenders. 8 (2): 209–230.
  14. ^ Adams, Kenneth (1992). "Adjusting to prison life". Crime & Justice. 16.
  15. ^ Hochstetler, A.; DeLisi, M.; Pratt, T.C. (2010). "Social support and feelings of hostility among released inmates". Crime & Delinquency. 56: 588–607.
  16. ^ Bales, W.D.; Mears, D.P. (2008). "Inmate social ties and the transition to society: Does visitation reduce recidivism?". Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency. 45: 287–321.
  17. ^ a b Laub, John H.; Nagin, Daniel S.; Sampson, Robert J. (1998). "Trajectories of change in criminal offending: Good marriages and the desistance process". American Sociological Review. 63 (2): 225–238.
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