User:Pbsouthwood/Geological timeline of South Africa

In the beginning

Timeline of the metric expansion of space, where space (including hypothetical non-observable portions of the universe) is represented at each time by the circular sections. On the left, the dramatic expansion occurs in the inflationary epoch; and at the center, the expansion accelerates (artist's concept; not to scale).

• -13.8 Gya: Big Bang – Physical theory describing the expansion of the universe
  • Singularity – History and future of the universePages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
  • Inflationary epoch – Theoretical period when the early universe expanded extremely rapidly
  • Big Bang nucleosynthesis – Process during the early universe
  • Matter-dominated era – Expansion of the universe parameterPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
  • Recombination (cosmology) – Epoch c. 370,000 years after the Big Bang
• c-13.4 Gya: Dark ages (cosmology) – History and future of the universe
• c-13.0 Gya: Stelliferous era – Future scenario if the expansion of the universe will continue forever or notPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
  • Galaxy formation and evolution – From a homogeneous beginning, the formation of the first galaxies, the way galaxies change over time
• -11.0 Gya: Formation of the Milky Way galaxy
• -8.8 Gya: Formation of Milky Way galactic disc
• -4.6 Gya: Formation and evolution of the Solar System – Modelling its structure and composition
• -4.54 Gya: Formation of the Earth – Third planet from the Sun
• -4.51 Gya: Origin of the Moon – Theories explaining the formation of Earth's Moon

Precambrian

Geologic time represented in a diagram called a geological clock, showing the relative lengths of the eons of Earth's history and noting major events

-4600 Mya: Precambrian – History of Earth 4600–539 million years ago

Hadean

-4600 Mya:Hadean – Geologic eon, 4567–4031 million years ago

• -4400 Mya: Origin of water on Earth – Hypotheses for the possible sources of the water on Earth
• -4100 Mya (to -3800 Mya): Late Heavy Bombardment – Hypothesized astronomical event
• -4000 Mya: Earliest known life forms – Putative fossilized microorganisms found near hydrothermal vents

Archaean

-4000 Mya: Archean, also known as Archaean – Geologic eon, 4031–2500 million years ago

Eoarchaean

-4000Mya (to -3600 Mya):Eoarchean, also known as Eoarchaean – First era of the Archean Eon

• (-4100 Mya to) -3800 Mya: End Late Heavy Bombardment – Hypothesized astronomical event
• -3600 Mya: Vaalbara – Archaean supercontinent from about 3.6 to 2.7 billion years ago
  • -3700 Mya (to -2600 Mya): Kaapvaal Craton – Archaean craton, possibly part of the Vaalbara supercontinent

Palaeoarchaean

-3600 Mya (to -3200 Mya): Paleoarchean – Second era of the Archean Eon

• -3500 Mya: Photosynthesis – Origin and subsequent evolution of the process by which light energy is used to synthesize sugars
• -3500 Mya: Cyanobacteria – Phylum of photosynthesising prokaryotes that can produce toxic blooms in lakes and other waters
• -3500 Mya: Atmosphere anoxic, pressure ranged from 10 to 100 bar
• -3500 Mya (to –3200 Mya): Tonalite-trondhjemite-granodiorite (TTG) suite of Barberton Greenstone Belt – Ancient granite-greenstone terrane in South Africa
  • -3450 Mya: Hooggenoeg Formation of the Barberton greenstone belt (magmatism)
    • The upper part of Hooggenoeg has ultramafic massive and pillow lavas, a trondhjemitic suite of silicified felsic intrusive and flow banded rocks, and sedimentary chert beds with intrusive veins of felsic, chert and ultramafic material deposited in a shallow sea.
    • Hooggenoeg felsic rocks can be divided into two groups: an intrusive group of interlocking and shallow intrusive rocks, and a porphyritic group of rocks from the veins.
  • -3260 Mya: Largest known terrestrial meteor impact event to date near the Barberton Greenstone Belt

Mesoarchaean

-3200 Mya: Mesoarchean – Third era of the Archean Eon

• -3200 Mya (to -3100 Mya): Granite–monzogranite–syenite granite (GMS) suite of Barberton Greenstone Belt – Ancient granite-greenstone terrane in South Africa
  • Medium-K GMS rocks – the Dalmein and portions of Heerenveen
  • High-K GMS rocks – Heerenveen, Mpuluzi and Boesmanskop
  • Boesmanskop syenite
• -3200 Mya?: Stromatolites – Layered sedimentary structure formed by the growth of bacteria or algae
• -3100 Mya: Mpuluzi granite batholith in the Barberton granite–gneiss terrane
• -3100 Mya (to -3000 Mya): Mesoarchaean cratonic magmatism is marked by the formation of a large crescent-shaped, juvenile arc that was accreted onto the northern and western margins of the evolving Kaapvaal shield
• -2900 Mya: Pongola glaciation – Glacial episode
• -2800 Mya: Breakup of Vaalbara

Neoarchaean

-2800 Mya: Neoarchean – Fourth era of the Archean Eon

• -2720 Mya: Kenorland – Hypothetical Neoarchaean supercontinent from about 2.8 billion years ago formed by the accretion of Neoarchaean cratons and the formation of new continental crust.
  • It comprised what later became Laurentia, Baltica, Western Australia and the Kalahari craton – African geological area
• -2500 Mya: End Neoarchaean

Proterozoic

-2500 Mya: Proterozoic – Geologic eon, 2500–539 million years ago

Paleoproterozoic

Paleoproterozoic – First era of the Proterozoic Eon

Siderian

A Siderian banded iron formation in Dales Gorge, Western Australia

-2500 Mya (to 2300 Mya): Siderian – First period of the Paleoproterozoic Era

• -2500 Mya (to 1500 Mya): Columbia (supercontinent) assembly starts
• -2480 Mya (to -2450 Mya): Tectonic magma-plume rifting started breakup of Kenorland
• -2450 Mya (to –1850 Mya): Great Oxygenation Event – Paleoproterozoic surge in atmospheric oxygenPages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets
• -2400 Mya (to -2100 Mya): Huronian glaciation, also known as Makganyene glaciation – Severe glaciation during the Paleoproterozoic era
  • Snowball Earth – Worldwide glaciation episodes during the Proterozoic eon
  • Banded iron formation reaches greatest extent

Rhyacian

-2300 Mya (to -2050 Mya): Rhyacian – Second period of the Paleoproterozoic Era

• The Bushveld Igneous Complex and other similar intrusions formed during this period.
• -2300 Mya: Glacial deposits in the Griquatown – town in the Northern Cape, South AfricaPages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback basin
• -2100 Mya: Kenorland broken up, end of Huronian glaciation

Orosirian

Vredefort crater is believed to have formed in this period

-2050 Mya (to -1800 Mya): Orosirian – Third period of the Paleoproterozoic Era

• -2023 Mya: A large asteroid impact created the Vredefort impact structure.
• c-2000 Mya: the Kaapvaal Craton and Zimbabwe Craton in southern Africa were collided along the Limpopo Belt in the Columbia (supercontinent)
• -1820 Mya (to -1500 Mya): Columbia (supercontinent)assembly completed, growth continued by accretion along margins

Statherian

-1800 Mya (to -1600 Mya): Statherian – Fourth and last period of the Paleoproterozoic Era

Mesoproterozoic

File:Rodinia reconstruction.jpg

Rodinia 750 Ma, view centred on the Equator. Reconstruction from Goodge et al. 2008.

-1600 Mya (to -1000 Mya): Mesoproterozoic – Second era of the Proterozoic Eon

Calymmian

-1600 Mya (to -1400 Mya): Calymmian – First period of the Mesoproterozoic Era

• (-1820 Mya to) -1500 Mya: Columbia (supercontinent) assembly completed, growth continued by accretion along margins]]
• -1500 Mya to -1350 Mya: Columbia began to fragment

Ectasian

-1400 Mya (to -1200 Mya): Ectasian – Second period of the Mesoproterozoic Era

• Earliest evidence of sexual reproduction

Stenian

-1200 Mya (to -1000 Mya): Stenian – Third and last period of the Mesoproterozoic Era

• -1100 Mya (-1230 Mya?) (to -900 Mya): formation begins of another supercontinent Rodinia by accretion and collision of fragments of Columbia

Neoproterozoic

Pannotia 545 Ma after Dalziel 1997, view centred on the South Pole; rotated 180° relative to the reconstruction of Rodinia above

-1000 Mya: Neoproterozoic – Third and last era of the Proterozoic Eon

Tonian

-1000 Mya (to -720 Mya): Tonian – First period of the Neoproterozoic Era

• (-1100 Mya to) -900 Mya: Rodinia spread across the equator
• -750 Mya (to -633 Mya): Breakup of Rodinia

Cryogenian

-720  (to -635 ): Cryogenian – Second period of the Neoproterozoic Era, with major glaciation

• -717 Mya to -635 Mya: Extreme cooling of the global climate resulted in the so-called Snowball Earth of the Cryogenian Period
  • -717 Mya to -643 Mya: Sturtian glaciation and
  • -650 Mya to -635 Mya: Marinoan glaciation

Ediacaran

-635 Mya (to -542 Mya): Ediacaran – Third and last period of the Neoproterozoic Era

• -633 Mya (to 573 Mya): Pannotia, a relatively short-lived supercontinent, formed from continental fragments reassembled from Rodinia
• -600 Mya: Earliest known Ediacaran biota – All organisms of the Ediacaran Period (c. 635–538.8 million years ago)
• -600 Mya: Pan-African orogeny, also known as Saldanian orogeny – Series of major mountain-forming events in the Neoproterozoic
  • The Gariep and Saldania belts run along the western and southern edge of the Kalahari Craton. Also the result of the closure of the Adamastor Ocean, the marine deposits, seamounts, and, ophiolites they contain were accreted onto the Kalahari margin around -540 Mya. They include the granite at Sea Point, Cape Town visited by Charles Darwin in 1836.
• -573 Mya: When Pannotia had formed, Africa was located at the centre
• -560 Mya: Breakup of Pannotia began with the opening of the Iapetus Ocean
• -550 Mya: Gondwana – Neoproterozoic to Cretaceous landmass
• -541 Mya: End Ediacaran, Proterozoic and Precambrian

Phanerozoic

Paleozoic

-541±1 Mya: Paleozoic – First era of the Phanerozoic Eon 539–252 million years ago

Cambrian

Southern Gondwana during the Cambrian-Ordovician Periods. Today's continents into which this Supercontinent eventually broke up, are indicated in brown. A rift developed about 510 million years ago, separating Southern Africa from the Falkland Plateau. Flooding of the rift formed the Agulhas Sea. The sediments which accumulated in this shallow sea consolidated to form the Cape Supergroup of rocks, which form the Cape Fold Belt today. This portion of Gondwana was probably located on the opposite side of the South Pole from Africa's present position, but compass bearings are nevertheless given as if Africa was in its present position.

-541±1 Mya: Cambrian – First period of the Paleozoic Era, 539–485 million years ago

• -510 Mya: Rift valley development south of southern Africa and deposition of Cape Supergroup started.
• -500 Mya:Pannotia – Hypothesized Neoproterozoic supercontinent
• Breakup of Pannonia, formation of Gondwana – Neoproterozoic to Cretaceous landmass
• Cambrian explosion – Period of major evolutionary diversification of animal life

Ordovician

• -484±1.9 Mya: Ordovician – Second period of the Paleozoic Era 485–444 million years ago
• Gondwana drifting south, glaciated
• Series of extinction events
• c-450 Mya (to -400 Mya): Start deposition of Bokkeveld Group

Silurian

-443.8±1.5 Mya: Silurian – Third period of the Paleozoic Era, 443–419 million years ago

• Gondwana continues southward drift, glaciated.

Devonian

-419 Mya: (to -358.9±2.5 Mya): Devonian – Fourth period of the Paleozoic Era 419–359 million years ago

Early Devonian

-419.2±2.8 Mya: Early Devonian Lochkovian stage

• -410.8±2.8Mya: Pragian stage.
• -407.6±2.5Mya: Emsian stage.
• (c-450 Mya to) -400 Mya: End deposition of Bokkeveld Group

Middle Devonian

-393.3±2.7 Mya: Middle Devonian Eifelian stage

• -387.7±2.7 Mya: Givetian stage

Late Devonian

-382.7±2.8 Mya: Late Devonian Frasnian stage

• -372.2±2.5 Mya: Famennian stage
• -370 Mya (to 330 Mya): Start of deposition of Witteberg Group in the shallow marine conditions of what remained of the Agulhas Sea.
• -358.9±2.5 Mya: End Devonian

Carboniferous

Map of Pangaea with modern continental outlines

-358.9±0.4 Mya: Carboniferous – Fifth period of the Paleozoic Era, 359–299 million years ago

• -335 Mya: Formation of Pangaea – Supercontinent from the late Paleozoic to early Mesozoic eras from Gondwana and Euramerica
• (-370 Mya to) 330 Mya: End of deposition of Witteberg Group in the shallow marine conditions of what remained of the Agulhas Sea. (upper extent of Cape Supergroup)
• -330 Mya: Start of closure of rift with Cape Supergroup deposits

Permian

-298.9±0.15 Mya: Permian – Sixth and last period of the Paleozoic Era 299–252 million years ago

• Permian–Triassic extinction event – Earth's most severe extinction event

Mesozoic

-252±? Mya: Mesozoic – Second era of the Phanerozoic Eon: ~252–66 million years ago

Triassic

-252.17±0.06 Mya: Triassic – First period of the Mesozoic Era 252–201 million years ago

Jurassic

The breakup of Pangaea over time

-201.3±0.2 Mya: Jurassic – Second period of the Mesozoic Era 201-145 million years ago -175 Mya: Pangaea breakup – Gondwana and Laurasia

• Africa – ContinentPages displaying short descriptions with no spaces
• Pan-African orogeny – Series of major mountain-forming events in the Neoproterozoic

Cretaceous

-145 Mya: Cretaceous – Third and last period of the Mesozoic Era, 145-66 million years ago -70 Mya: Start African cycle of landscape development

Cenozoic

-66 Mya: Cenozoic – Third era of the Phanerozoic Eon

Paleogene

-66 Mya: Paleogene – First period of the Cenozoic Era (66–23 million years ago)

Paleocene

-66 Mya: Paleocene – First epoch of the Paleogene Period

Eocene

-56 Mya: Eocene – Second epoch of the Paleogene Period

• -40 Mya: End African cycle of landscape development.

Oligocene

-34 Mya: Oligocene – Third epoch of the Paleogene Period

Neogene

-23.03 Mya: Neogene – Second geologic period in the Cenozoic Era 23–2.6 million years ago

Miocene

-23.03 Mya: Miocene – First epoch of the Neogene Period

• Post-African cycle I of landscape development after further uplift. Large amounts of sedimentary fill in Kalahari basin.

Pliocene

-5.333 Mya: Pliocene – Second epoch of the Neogene Period

• Post-African cycle II of landscape development follows uplift of central-eastern part of South Africa.

Quaternary

-2.588 Mya: Quaternary – Third and current period of the Cenozoic Era, from 2.58 million years ago to the present

Pleistocene

-2.588 Mya: Pleistocene – First epoch of the Quaternary Period

Holocene

-11,700 BP: Holocene – Current geological epoch, covering the last 11,700 years

References

Sources

• Dalziel, I. W. (1997). "Neoproterozoic-Paleozoic geography and tectonics: Review, hypothesis, environmental speculation". Geological Society of America Bulletin. 109 (1): 16–42. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(1997)109<0016:ONPGAT>2.3.CO;2.

• Goodge, J. W.; Vervoort, J. D.; Fanning, C. M.; Brecke, D. M.; Farmer, G. L.; Williams, I. S.; Myrow, P. M.; DePaolo, D. J. (2008). "A positive test of East Antarctica–Laurentia juxtaposition within the Rodinia supercontinent" (PDF). Science. 321 (5886): 235–40. Bibcode:2008Sci...321..235G. doi:10.1126/science.1159189. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 18621666.

• Kröner, A.; Stern, R. J. (2004). "Pan-African Orogeny". In Selley, R. C.; Cocks, R.; Plimer, I. (eds.). Encyclopedia of Geology. Vol. 1. Amsterdam: Elsevier. pp. 1–12. ISBN 9780126363807. Retrieved 31 December 2015.