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User:Ninetyone/Offences at common law

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e


CL table


  • refusal to assist extend to mag and sheriff
  • unfit human food
Key
Abolished. This includes offences not explicitly abolished, but wholly superseded by statutory offences
Considered obsolete, though not abolished or superseded by a statutory offence
Still in force and used
Unclear; a number of offences are mentioned by some
sources but little further information is available
Offence Status Other names Repealed by Repealed on Replaced by Notes References
Affray Abolished - section 9, Public Order Act 1986 1 April 1987[Co 1] New statutory offence of affray under section 3 of the Public Order Act 1986 [H 1]
Arson Abolished - section 11, Criminal Damage Act 1971 14 October 1971[Co 2] New statutory offence of arson under section 1(3) of the Criminal Damage Act 1971 [H 2]
Assault with intent to rob In force - - - - [H 3][1]
Attempt Abolished - section 6, Criminal Attempts Act 1981 27 August 1981[Co 3] New statutory offence of attempt under section 1 of the Criminal Attempts Act 1981 [H 4]
Battery In force See common assault below - - - - [H 5]
Being a common barrator Abolished - section 13, Criminal Law Act 1967 21 July 1967[Co 4] - Obsolete when repealed. An separate offence of barratry appears to still exist under admiralty law.[H 6] [C 1][2]
Being a common scold Abolished - section 13, Criminal Law Act 1967 21 July 1967[Co 4] - Obsolete when repealed. [2]
Being a common nightwalker Abolished - section 13, Criminal Law Act 1967 21 July 1967[Co 4] - Obsolete when repealed; probably included simply being outside at night, though in some US states it still covers solicitation.[3] [2]
Blasphemy & blasphemous libel Abolished Repealed as two separate offences, though probably one section 79, Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008 8 July 2008[Co 5] Partially replaced by Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006 which extended protection to all religions Last prosecution 1977 (Whitehouse v Lemon), obsolete in practice since that date, though considered in Green, R (on the application of) v City of Westminster Magistrates' Court & Ors [2007] EWHC 2785 (Admin) in relation to the BBC's televisation of Jerry Springer: The Opera. A distinction between two offences named in the repeal is unclear and probably non-existent.
Breach of the peace In force - - - - Not a criminal offence and punishable only by binding over. [4]
Breaking prison In force Breach of prison/Prison break - - - Similar to escape, but requires force to be used [5][6]
Bribery Abolished - section 17, Bribery Act 2010 1 July 2011[Co 6] New statutory offence of bribery. A family of common law electoral offences (bribery, treating and undue influence) may have fallen into a broad category of "bribery"; although they were essentially superceded by sections 113 to 115 of the Representation of the People Act 1983, the lack of implict repeal means they probably survived until 2010. [7]
Burglary Abolished Breaking and entering section 32, Theft Act 1968 1 January 1969[Co 7] New statutory offence of burglary under section 9 of the Theft Act 1968 Partially codified by section 23 of theLarceny Act 1916.
Causing a public nuisance In force - - - - Partially rendered obsolete by modern statue law, use declining.[4] [8][9][10]
Causing a public mischief Abolished - - - - Prosecuted several times in the early 19th century, but ruled to not exist in 1975.[C 2]
Challenging to fight Abolished - section 13, Criminal Law Act 1967 21 July 1967[Co 4] - Obsolete when repealed. [2]
Cheating Abolished - section 32, Theft Act 1968 1 January 1969[Co 7] - See cheating the public revenue below. -
Cheating the public revenue In force, rarely used - - Preserved by section 32 of the Theft Act 1968. Still in force, though rarely used. -
Common assault In force Assault, see also battery above - - -
A very unclear area of the law.
  • The phrase "common assault" can have different meanings depending on the context. It is generally held that there are two offences:[C 3][H 7]
    • putting someone in fear of the application of unlawful force (battery)
    • applying unlawful force ((common) assault or technical assault)
When both occur together, the charge is assault by beating.
  • Whether these offences are statutory or common law offences is the subject of considerable debate. They are currently charged as statutory offences.
Compounding a felony Abolished - section 5, Criminal Law Act 1967 1 January 1968 New statutory offence of concealing an offence under section 5 of the Criminal Law Act 1967 Compounding a misdemeanour also abolished, although its existence was described as "doubtful".[11]
Compounding treason In force, rarely used - - - - Section 5 of the Criminal Law Act 1967 abolished the offences of compunding a felony (and compounding a misdemeanour, if it ever existed), but compounding treason was preserved.
Concealment of treasure trove Abolished - section 32, Theft Act 1968 1 January 1969[Co 7] 28 years after the original repeal, by new statutory offence of failing to notify coroner under section 8 of the Treasure Act 1996 - Partially codified by sections 17, 18 & 19 of theLarceny Act 1916
Conspiracy Abolished - section 5, Criminal Law Act 1977 1 December 1977[Co 8] New statutory inchoate offence of conspiracy under section 2 of the Criminal Law Act 1977 Abolished with the exception of the three below offences. -
Conspiracy to corrupt public morals In force, rarely used - - - - Preserved part of the old offence of conspiracy. Sometimes joined with conspiracy to outrage public decency.[12] [4][13][14]
Conspiracy to defraud In force - - - - Preserved part of the old offence of conspiracy. Statutory offence of conspiracy to commit fraud under section 1 of the Fraud Act 2006 also exists, though the two have different points to prove. [4][15]
Conspiracy to outrage public decency In force, rarely used - - - - Preserved part of the old offence of conspiracy. Sometimes joined with conspiracy to corrupt public morals.[12] [14]
Contempt of court In force - - - - Although not a "normal" criminal offence, it is undoubtedly an offence nonetheless. [4]
Contempt of the Sovereign Obsolete - - - - Last used in 1840. [H 8]
Defamatory libel Abolished Criminal libel section 73, Coroners and Justice Act 2009 12 January 2010[Co 9] - - -
Disposal of a corpse with intent to obstruct or prevent a coroner's inquest In force - - - - Similar to preventing the lawful burial of a body, but requires intent to obstruct a coroner. [H 9][H 10][16]
Disturbing a priest of the established church in the performance of divine worship In force, rarely used - - - - Obsolete [H 11]
Eavesdropping Abolished - section 13, Criminal Law Act 1967 21 July 1967[Co 4] - Obsolete when repealed. [2]
Embracery Abolished - section 17, Bribery Act 2010 1 July 2011[Co 10] - Obsolete when repealed, and previously partially superseded by:

Note: until specifically repealed, the old common law offence had been protected from implied repeal by section 51(11) of the 1994 Act.

[4][17][5]
Escape In force - - - - Similar to breaking prison, but without force. [4][18][19]
Extortion by colour of office or franchise Abolished - section 32, Theft Act 1968 1 January 1969[Co 7] New statutory offence of blackmail under section 21 of the Theft Act 1968 - -
Failure by a common innkeeper to provide board and lodging In force - - - - Uncertain [20][H 12]
False accounting by a public officer Abolished - section 32, Theft Act 1968 1 January 1969[Co 7] New statutory offence of false accounting under section 17 of the Theft Act 1968 - Partially codified by sections 17, 18 & 19 of the Larceny Act 1916
False imprisonment In force - - - - - [4][21][22]
Forcible detainer Abolished - section 13, Criminal Law Act 1977 1 December 1977[Co 11] New statutory offence of adverse occupation of residential premises under section 7 of the Criminal Law Act 1977 - -
Forcible entry Abolished - section 13, Criminal Law Act 1977 1 December 1977[Co 12] New statutory offence of using violence to secure entry under section 6 of the Criminal Law Act 1977 - -
Forgery Abolished - section 13, Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981 27 October 1981[Co 13] New statutory offence of forgery under section 1, Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981 In practice, the common law offence had been abolished piecemail by Forgery Act 1861 and Forgery Act 1913 -
Incitement (to commit an offence) Abolished - section 59, Serious Crime Act 2007 1 October 2008[Co 14]

New statutory offences of:

  • intentionally encouraging or assisting an offence,
  • encouraging or assisting an offence believing it will be committed, and
  • encouraging or assisting offences believing one or more will be committed

under sections 44, 45 and 46 of the Serious Organised Crime Act 2007

- [23][24]

[25] [H 13]

Indecent exposure In force - - - - Uncertain; a number of old statutory "indecent exposure" offences were repealed in 2003[26] and replaced by "exposure" under section 66, Sexual Offences Act 2003. Common law offence appears to have survived. [4]
Infanticide In force - - - - As per murder, Infanticide Act 1938 provides for alternative charge & verdict in certain cases [4]
Intent to defraud Crown In force - - - - Uncertain; non-specific [4]
Keeping a disorderly house In force - - - - Rarely used [4]
Larceny Abolished - section 32, Theft Act 1968 1 January 1969[Co 7] New statutory offence of theft under section 7 of the Theft Act 1968 Extensively codified by the Larceny Act 1916 -
Kidnap In force - - - - - [21][22][6]
Maintenance (including champerty) Abolished - section 13, Criminal Law Act 1967 21 July 1967[Co 4] - Embracery preserved, see above. Obsolete when repealed.
Manslaughter In force - Abolished in relation to corporations, certain government departments, police forces and certain other bodies (see section 1(2)) by section 20, Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 Common law offence abolished in application to the aforementioned bodies on 6 April 2008[27] Insofar as it applies to the aforementioned bodies by new statutory offence of corporate manslaughter under section 1 of the Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 - [4][21]
Misconduct in public office In force Misfeasence in public office[28] - - - - [4][29]
Misprision of felony Abolished - section 1, Criminal Law Act 1967 (implied) 1 January 1968[Co 15] New statutory offence ofconcealing an offence under section 5 of the Criminal Law Act 1967 Abolished as a result of the abolition of the distinction between felony and misdemeanour. Discussed at length in Sykes v DPP[1962] A.C. 528.
Misprision of (high) treason In force - - - - - -
Misprision of petty treason Abolished - section 2, Offences against the Person Act 1828 1 July 1828[Co 16] - - -
Murder In force Murder (victim under 1 year of age) - - - Murder of child under 1 year charged as infanticide, see above [4][21]
Obscene libel Abolished - section 2(4), Obscene Publications Act 1959 (in practice)
section 73, Coroners and Justice Act 2009 (explicitly)		 29 August 1959,[Co 17]/12 January 2010[Co 18] New offence of publishing an obscene article under section 2(1) of the Obscene Publications Act 1959 Although the old offence was treated as having been repealed[30][31] the new definition of "obscene" was not extended to other legislation that contained prohibitions on obscene material. The offence was finally explicitly repealed by section 73 of the Coroners and Justice Act 2009 on 12 January 2010.[Co 19] -
Obtaining property by threats Abolished - section 32, Theft Act 1968 1 January 1969[Co 7]

New statutory offences of:

of the Theft Act 1968

Codified by section 30 of the Larceny Act 1916 -
Outraging public decency In force - - - - - [32][21][14]
Permitting an escape In force - - - - From prison [5]
Personation of a juror In force - - - - - [H 14][H 15]
Perverting the course of (public) justice In force - - - - - [33][5][34][6]
Pound breach In force, obsolete - - - -
  • the removal of goods impounded upon a distress for rent or damage feasant from the pound against the will of the person impounding them, or
  • in forcibly releasing cattle or other animals lawfully placed in a proper pound or forcibly damaging or destroying the pound with that object

See Rescue below.

[H 16][H 17]
Praemunire Abolished - Schedule 4 to the Criminal Law Act 1967 21 July 1967[Co 4] - Repeal of the Statue of Praemunire considered to have repealed any offence [35]
Preventing the lawful burial of a body In force - - - - - [H 18][H 19][4][16]
Procuring materials for crime Abolished - section 6, Criminal Attempts Act 1981 27 August 1981[Co 20] New statutory offence of attempt under section 1 of the Criminal Attempts Act 1981 [H 20]
Receiving stolen property Abolished - section 32, Theft Act 1968 1 January 1969[Co 7] New statutory offence of handling stolen goods under section 22 of the Theft Act 1968 Codified by section 33 of the Larceny Act 1916 -
Refusing to assist a constable In force - - - - Rarely used [4][36]
Refusal to serve in a public office In force - - - - Uncertain [20][H 21]
Removing a corpse from a grave In force Disinterring a dead body - - - Obsolete [H 22]
Rescue (of a person, from lawful custody) In force Rescuing prisoner in custody - - - Removing a person from a prison or other place where he is lawfully held [4][5]
Rescue (of goods, from lawful custody) In force Rescous - - - Unclear: relates to removal of goods that have been seized under the right to effect distress. Described as an offence in paragraph 1050,[H 23] but further paragraphs only mention pound-breach (see above) as an offence.[H 24] Both rescue and pound-breach are now resolved by civil actions.[H 24][37]
Riot Abolished - section 9, Public Order Act 1986 1 April 1987[Co 1] New statutory offence of riot under section 1 of the Public Order Act 1986 [H 25]
Robbery Abolished - section 32, Theft Act 1968 1 January 1969[Co 7] New statutory offence of robbery under section 8 of the Theft Act 1968 Codified by section 23 of the Larceny Act 1916 -
Rout Abolished - section 9, Public Order Act 1986 1 April 1987[Co 1] New statutory offence of violent disorder under section 2 of the Public Order Act 1986 [H 26]
Sedition Abolished - section 73, Coroners and Justice Act 2009 12 January 2010[Co 21] Sections 1 and 2 of the Terrorism Act 2006 now cover much activity that might have previously constituted sedition at common law Sedition by an alien remains a statutory offence under section 3, Aliens Restriction (Amendment) Act 1919
Showing an indecent exhibition In force - - - - Rarely used [4]
Striking a person in a church or churchyard In force, rarely used - - - - Obsolete [H 27]
Suicide Abolished - section 1, Suicide Act 1961 3 August 1961[Co 22] The act of committing suicide was legalised, though new statutory inchoate offences of aiding, abetting, counselling or procuring the suicide or attempted suicide of another were created by section 2 of the Suicide Act 1961. - -
Trading with the enemy Superceded - Not explicity abolished 3rd September 1939 (retrospectively)[Co 23] - Similar to other common law & prerogative powers at the time, the common law was codified with a new statutory offence of trading with the enemy, under the Trading with the Enemy Act 1939. The common law offence may subsist. [H 28][38]
Treating Superceded - Not explicitly abolished 15 March 1983[Co 24] Effectively replaced by new statutory offence of treating, under section 114 of the Representation of the People Act 1983 A family of common law electoral offences (bribery, treating and undue influence) may have fallen into a broad category of "bribery"; although they were essentially superceded by new statutory offences under sections 113 to 115 of the Representation of the People Act 1983, there was no express repeal or abolition. They may have been subsumed in the abolition of the common law offence of bribery in 2010 (by section 17, Bribery Act 2010). [39]
Undue influence Superceded - Not explicitly abolished 15 March 1983[Co 24] Effectively replaced by new statutory offence of undue influence, under section 115 of the Representation of the People Act 1983 A family of common law electoral offences (bribery, treating and undue influence) may have fallen into a broad category of "bribery"; although they were essentially superceded by new statutory offences under sections 113 to 115 of the Representation of the People Act 1983, there was no express repeal or abolition. They may have been subsumed in the abolition of the common law offence of bribery in 2010 (by section 17, Bribery Act 2010). [39]
Unlawful assembly Abolished - section 9, Public Order Act 1986 1 April 1987[Co 1] Partially by new statutory offence of failing to comply with directions given by a police officer under section 14(5), Public Order Act 1986 - -
Uttering Superceded - section 6, Forgery Act 1913 1 January 1914[Co 25] Effectively replaced by new statutory offence of uttering under section 6, Forgery Act 1913. The current offence is using a false instrument, under section 3, Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981 Not explicitly repealed by the 1913 Act, and section 14 made provision for prosecutions under common law for many of the statutory offences the Act created -

References

edit

Court cases

edit
  1. ^ Conway v. Wade [1908] 2 K.B. 844 Page 854
  2. ^ [1978] Crim LR 435, 436, citing DPP v Withers [1975] AC 842
  3. ^ R v Lynsey [1995] 3 All ER 654

Commencement references

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  1. ^ a b c d The Public Order Act 1986 (Commencement No. 2) Order 1987
  2. ^ section 12 (commencement) and date of assent, Criminal Damage Act 1971
  3. ^ section 11 (commencement) and date of Assent
  4. ^ a b c d e f g No date specified; so date of assent, Criminal Law Act 1967
  5. ^ section 153 (commencement) and date of assent, Criminal Justice and Immigration Act 2008
  6. ^ The Bribery Act 2010 (Commencement) Order 2011
  7. ^ a b c d e f g h i section 35, Theft Act 1968
  8. ^ SI 1977/1682
  9. ^ section 182, Coroners and Justice Act 2009 (two months after 12 November 2009)
  10. ^ The Bribery Act 2010 (Commencement) Order 2011
  11. ^ SI 1977/1682
  12. ^ SI 1977/1682
  13. ^ section 33 (commencement) and date of assent, Forgery and Counterfeiting Act 1981
  14. ^ article 2, The Serious Crime Act 2007 (Commencement No. 3) Order 2008
  15. ^ section 12 (commencement), Criminal Law Act 1967
  16. ^ section 1, Offences against the Person Act 1828
  17. ^ section 5, Obscene Publications Act 1959 and date of assent (one month after 29 July 1959)
  18. ^ section 182, Coroners and Justice Act 2009 (two months after 12 November 2009)
  19. ^ section 182, Coroners and Justice Act 2009 (two months after 12 November 2009)
  20. ^ section 11 (commencement) and date of Assent, Criminal Attempts Act 1981
  21. ^ section 182, Coroners and Justice Act 2009 (two months after 12 November 2009)
  22. ^ No date given, so date of assent
  23. ^ "At the Court at Buckingham Palace, the 8th day of September, 1939". The London Gazette. No. 34683. The Stationery Office. Office of Public Sector Information. 15 September 1939. Retrieved 4 April 2015.
  24. ^ a b The Representation of the People Act 1983 (Commencement) Order 1983
  25. ^ Section 22, Forgery Act 1916

Halsbury's Laws of England

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  1. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 26: "Criminal Law", paragraph 489 (5th edition)
  2. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 25: "Criminal Law", paragraph 327 (5th edition)
  3. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 25: "Criminal Law", paragraph 289 (5th edition)
  4. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 25: "Criminal Law", paragraph 86 (5th edition)
  5. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 25: "Criminal Law", paragraph 157 (5th edition)
  6. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 94: "Shipping and Maritime Law", paragraph 1248 (5th edition)
  7. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 25: "Criminal Law", paragraph 157 (5th edition)
  8. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 25: "Criminal Law", paragraph 362 (5th edition)
  9. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 26: "Criminal Law", paragraph 688 (5th edition)
  10. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 25: "Cremation and Burial", paragraph 1104 (5th edition)
  11. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 14: "Ecclesiastical Law", paragraph 1050
  12. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 67: "Licensing and Gambling", paragraph 186 (5th edition)
  13. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 25: "Criminal Law", paragraph 64 (5th edition)
  14. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 26: "Criminal Law", paragraph 686 (5th edition)
  15. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 61: "Juries", paragraph 858 (5th edition)
  16. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 26: "Criminal Law", paragraph 702 (5th edition)
  17. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 13: "Distress", paragraph 1075
  18. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 26: "Criminal Law", paragraph 688 (5th edition)
  19. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 25: "Cremation and Burial", paragraph 1104 (5th edition)
  20. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 25: "Criminal Law", paragraph 86 (5th edition)
  21. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 26: "Criminal Law", paragraph 469 (5th edition)
  22. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 24: "Cremation and Burial", paragraph 1302 (5th edition)
  23. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 13: "Distress", paragraph 1069
  24. ^ a b Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 13: "Distress", paragraph 1073
  25. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 26: "Criminal Law", paragraph 487 (5th edition)
  26. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 26: "Criminal Law", paragraph 488 (5th edition)
  27. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 14: "Ecclesiastical Law", paragraph 1050
  28. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 20: "Constitutional and Administrative Law", paragraph 543

Others

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  1. ^ Section 5, Schedule 1 to Serious Crime Act 2007
  2. ^ a b c d e The Law Commission,Proposals to Abolish Certain Ancient Criminal Offences (Law Com 3), paragraph 2
  3. ^ http://www.mass.gov/courts/courtsandjudges/courts/districtcourt/jury-instructions/criminal/pdf/7120-common-nightwalker.pdf
  4. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s Common Law Offences Charged and Reaching a first hearing in Magistrates' Courts, Crown Prosecution Service
  5. ^ a b c d e http://www.cps.gov.uk/publications/docs/graduatedfee.pdf
  6. ^ a b c Part 6, Criminal Defence Service (Funding) Order 2007
  7. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/a_to_c/bribery_and_corruption/index.html#P65_5220
  8. ^ Section 1, Schedule 1 to Magistrates' Courts Act 1980
  9. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/p_to_r/prostitution_and_offences_against_public_morals/#Public_Nuisance_2
  10. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/s_to_u/sentencing_manual/public_nuisance/
  11. ^ Criminal Law Revision Committee. Seventh report. Felonies and misdemeanours (1964-65 Cmnd. 2659)
  12. ^ a b http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/h_to_k/inchoate_offences/index.html#Common_law_conspiracies
  13. ^ Section 2, Obscene Publications Act 1959
  14. ^ a b c http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/p_to_r/prostitution_and_offences_against_public_morals/#Committing_an_act
  15. ^ Section 6, Schedule 7 to Gambling Act 2005
  16. ^ a b http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/p_to_r/public_justice_offences_incorporating_the_charging_standard/index.html#Obstructing_a_Coroner
  17. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/p_to_r/public_justice_offences_incorporating_the_charging_standard/index.html#Interference_with_Jurors
  18. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/p_to_r/public_justice_offences_incorporating_the_charging_standard/index.html#Escape_Breach_of
  19. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/s_to_u/sentencing_manual/escape/
  20. ^ a b "Simplification of Criminal Law: Public Nuisance and Outraging Public Decency (Consultation Paper No 193)" (PDF). Law Commission. Retrieved 7 February 2011. Cite error: The named reference "lawcom" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  21. ^ a b c d e Schedule 5 to Sexual Offences Act 2003
  22. ^ a b http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/l_to_o/offences_against_the_person/index.html
  23. ^ section 59, Serious Crime Act 2007
  24. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/h_to_k/inchoate_offences/#Incitement
  25. ^ http://www.justice.gov.uk/publications/docs/serious-crime-act-2007-implementation-part2.pdf
  26. ^ Schedule 7 to the Sexual Offences Act 2003
  27. ^ The Corporate Manslaughter and Corporate Homicide Act 2007 (Commencement No.1) Order 2008
  28. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/a_to_c/bribery_and_corruption/#P65_5220
  29. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/l_to_o/misconduct_in_public_office/
  30. ^ Williams, J.E. Hall (1960). "The Obscene Publications Act, 1959". The Modern Law Review. 23 (3). Blackwell Publishing. ISSN 0026-7961.
  31. ^ Wade, E.C.S. (1959). "Obscene Publications Act, 1959". Cambridge Law Journal. 17 (2). Cambridge University Press. ISSN 0008-1973.
  32. ^ Section 320, Criminal Justice Act 2003
  33. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/p_to_r/public_justice_offences_incorporating_the_charging_standard/index.html#Perverting_the_Course_1
  34. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/s_to_u/sentencing_manual/perverting_the_course_of_justice/
  35. ^ 1968-69 (382-I): Report on the Statue Law (Repeals) Bill [H.L.]
  36. ^ http://www.cps.gov.uk/legal/p_to_r/public_justice_offences_incorporating_the_charging_standard/index.html#Refusing_to_Assist
  37. ^ section 3, Distress for Rent Act 1689
  38. ^ Halsbury's Laws of England, volume 3: "Armed Conflict and Emergency", paragraph 197
  39. ^ a b Daniel, Timothy; Bacarese, Alan; Hatchard, John (2011). Corruption and Misuse of Public Office. Oxford University Press. pp. 49, 116, 205. ISBN 9780199577279.
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