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Introduction

Adult development is a field of study that falls under the developmental psychology branch. It is the study of early and middle adulthood. The study of later adulthood falls under the field entitled gerontology.

Four adult development theories:

1. Behaviorist/Mechanisitic Approach
2. Psychological/Cognitive Approach
3. Contextualism/Sociocultural Approach
4. Integrated Approach

The Behavioral/Mechanisitic Approach to adult development views individuals as “machines” whose development is dependent on their responses to external forces. This approach implies that your past behaviors impact, or predict, your future behaviors.

The Psychological/Cognitive Approach to development states that through active involvement in their environment, people reach more complex levels in their own development. Development is viewed as a “continuous journey” towards escalating levels of difficulty through out one’s life.

The Contextual/Sociocultural Approach viewpoint in correlation with adult development is that individual’s are not separate from the contexts in which they live but are part of them. One cannot understand adult development from the contextual/sociocultural approach apart from the sociohistorical context in which it occurs.

The Integrated Approach to adult development takes a holistic view. Spirituality is sometimes a part of this view, which focuses on how the intersection of mind, body and sociocultural influences affect development.

Four adult development theories

1. The Behavioral/ Mechanistic Approach
2. The Psychological/ Cognitive Approach
3. Contextual/ Sociocultural Approach
4. Integrated Approach

Metatheories

Three metatheories serves as frameworks in terms of which adult development research can be organized and designed:

1. Mechanistic
2. Organismic
3. Contextual

Mechanistic Metatheory

Mechanistic metatheory states that the source of developmental changes is the environment. These changes are continuous and smooth rather than step-like. Research is focused on examining the interactions of outside sources in shaping development, and the objects of study are observable and measurable. Within this framework, research involves quantitative designs. The chief criticisms of mechanistic metatheory center around the emphasis placed on external sources as the means of development, which disregards the individual differences.

Organismic

Organismic metatheory states the source of developmental changes is a combination of biological changes and environmental forces. Developmental changes are viewed as qualitative and discontinuous, happening in spurts of growth or decline, where each stage is more complex than the last. Critics have pointed out that stages of development are not always numerical and do not necessarily occur in a linear order. Furthermore, some of these stages might not be found across different culture, and the happening of events that are outside the norm does not make those events abnormal.

Contextual Metatheory

Currently, contextual metatheory is the dominant philosophy in the study of adult development. Contextual theory synthetizes mechanistic and organismic philosophies, and acknowledges the influence of both biological (internal) and environmental (external) factor on developmental changes. Likewise, it also recognizes that development can happen in both continuous and discontinuous stages. Contextual metatheory takes into account individual differences, diversity and levels of culture.

According to Baltes et al. there are seven core assumptions which underlie contextual metatheory:

• Development takes place as a lifelong process
• During each period the individual experiences both gains and losses
• Development is multidirectional
• Contextualism is apparent
• Historical influences must be taken into account
• Plasticity: skills and abilities are flexible
• Contextualism acknowledges the necessity for a multidisciplinary approach to the study of developmental changes.

Biological Approach

The biological approach focuses on physical changes and it is influenced by neuropsychology, biopsychology and behavioral neuroscience. It emphasizes the biological foundations of thoughts and behaviors, and how they relate to developmental changes.

Programmed theories

Programmed theories argue that the aging process is paced and controlled by a biological timetable. The programmed longevity theory states that the loses and deficits that take place with aging are associated with different genes being turned off and on, whereas the endocrine theory shifts the focus away from genes to hormones as the chief controllers of the aging process and biological clock. A third theory, the immunological theory, places emphasis on the immune system, stating that it is programmed to decline overtime and therefore making the individual more vulnerable to disease and infections as aging progresses.

Error theories

Error theories acknowledge the interactions between the environment and genetic factors, and how they influence aging. Under this paradigm, the wear and tear theory focus on how cell, tissues, organs, etc., deteriorate as time passes. The rate of living theory emphasizes resources and states that organisms die when the finite resources which sustain them are exhausted. Crosslinking theory frames the aging process at the molecular level, and claims that changes and reactions associated with negative aspects of aging take place when glucose molecules attach to proteins. The free radical theory instead emphasizes damage caused by “oxygen free radicals”. Lastly, the somatic DNA damage theory focuses on genetic mutations as the cause of cell deterioration over time.

Connectionist Approach

The connectionist approach places the emphasis on cognitive psychology. It makes use of state of the art technology in order to make observations about changes on the brain and neuronal activities associated with aging. In addition, specialized software is used in order to create mathematical models of cognitive processes, and artificial intelligence software is used to simulate human learning and development. Connectionist theories propose that forming cognitive associations between simple pieces of information occur in a gradual process which requires repetition. This process results in the formation of distinct networks over time. The connectionist approach is useful to gain an understanding of peak performance as well as decline of several aspects of brain functioning. Furthermore, the use of artificial intelligence software allows studying brain functions without harming human subjects. In addition, the modeling software allows researchers to make predictions of how developmental changes interact with human cognition, as well as setting basis for developing therapy.

Sociocultural Theories

There are several socio-cultural theories that relate to adult development. Examples of some theories are Daniel Levinson’s theory of life structure, Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development, and Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development.

Daniel Levinson’s Theory

Daniel Levinson’s Theory of Life Structure - Levinson’s theory focuses on the human life stages and the periods of time in which they occur. According to Levinson, individuals go through several necessary transition periods in their lives. These different periods are important and contribute to the individual’s adult development. Levinson believed that there are 6 developmental periods in life and they last about 5 years each. He based his findings on interviews that he conducted with 40 American men.

• Early Adult Transition (Ages 16-24)
• Forming a Life Structure (Ages 24-28)
• Settling down (Ages 29-34)
• Becoming One’s Own Man (Ages 35-40)
• Midlife Transition (Early forties)
• Restabilization, into Late Adulthood (Age 45 and on)

Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development

Lawrence Kohlberg's Stages of Moral Development – Kohlberg focused on the individual’s moral judgment and the process toward moral maturity. His theory explains the ethic development of individuals through 6 stages of moral reasoning. He believed that each stage is essential and cannot be skipped; therefore everyone goes through every stage and progressively transitions to the next.

• Stage 1 – Obedience or Punishment Orientation
• Stage 2 – Self-Interest Orientation
• Stage 3 – Social Conformity Orientation
• Stage 4 – Law and Order Orientation
• Stage 5 – Social Contrast Orientation
• Stage 6 – Universal Ethics Orientation

Erik Erickson’s Theory

Erikson developed stages of the human lifespan and was highly influenced by Freud. However unlike Freud, Erikson believed that social interaction is very important in the individual’s psychosocial development. His concept consists of 8 inevitable stages in life from birth to old age.

• Stage 1 – Trust vs. Mistrust
• Stage 2 – Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
• Stage 3 – Initiative vs. Guilt
• Stage 4 – Industry vs. Inferiority
• Stage 5 – Identity vs. Role Confusion
• Stage 6 – Intimacy vs. Isolation
• Stage 7 – Generativity vs. Stagnation
• Stage 8 – Integrity vs. Despair

Life Satisfaction

Gerotranscendence is referred to as the final stage in adult development in the natural progression towards maturity. Typically, during Gerotranscendence, an adult will redefine his or herself and their relationships with others. Individuals may also experience a decrease in interest in relation to material possessions and a greater need for “positive solitude” or internal reflection and meditation.

Aging

In adult development, aging is regarded as a change in physical and chemical characteristics over a period of time. In human beings, aging occurs through stage-like periods (according to many theorists). Adult development as a whole, is comprised of cognitive and behavioral changes that range from poorer memory retrieval to worsening eyesight. Different theories and aspects regarding adult development are discussed below.

Illnesses Associated with Aging

As adult bodies undergo a variety of physical changes that cause health to decline, a higher risk of contracting a variety of illnesses, both physical and mental, is possible.

Mental Illnesses

• Depression

Depression mainly effects older adults. The main symptoms of depression include sadness, general decline in mood, low self-worth, lethargy, loss of interest in normally enjoyed activities; all of these symptoms are often found to be an indicator of depression if it interferes with everyday life.

• Dementia

Dementia usually occurs within adults over the age of 65. This illness includes severe problems with reasoning, learning, and remembering experiences or thoughts. Dementia also sometimes causes the person to behave erratically and inappropriately. The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer's Disease. It is thought that neurodegenerative disease is one of the main causes for dementia, where neurons in the brain permanently lose function.

Physical Illnesses

• Cancer

Scientists have made a distinctive connection between aging and cancer. It has been shown that the majority of cancer cases occur in those over 50 years of age. This may be due to the decline in strength of the immune system as one ages or co existing conditions. There a variety of symptoms associated with cancer, commonly growths or tumors may be indicators of cancer. Radiation, chemotherapy, and in some cases, surgery, is used to treat the cancer.

• Arthritis

Arthritis is one of the most commonly experienced illnesses in adults as they age. Although there are a variety of types of arthritis they all include very similar symptoms: aching joints, stiff joints, continued joint pain, and problems moving joints.

• Cardiovascular Disease

It has been found that older age does increase the risk factor of contracting a cardiovascular disease. Hypertension and high cholesterol have also been found to increase the likelihood of acquiring a cardiovascular disease, which are also commonly found in older adults. Cardiovascular diseases include a variety of heart conditions that may induce a heart attack or other heart-related problems. Healthy eating, exercise, and avoiding smoking are usually used to prevent cardiovascular disease.

• Immune System

Infection occurs more easily as one ages, as the immune system starts to slow and become less effective. Aging also changes how the immune system reacts to infection, making new infections harder to detect and attack. Essentially, the immune system has a higher chance of being compromised the older one gets.

Studies

Studies are currently underway concerning adult development by Robert J. Waldinger and George Eman Vaillant at The Department of Psychiatry, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School. Professor Robert J. Waldinger, from Boston Massachusetts, is studying a group of men who have been a part of an elaborate study for 67 years. The intention is to examine early life predictors of healthy or unhealthy aging and relationships late in life. George E. Vaillant, who has been the Director of the Study of Adult Development at the Harvard University Health Service for the last thirty five years has published is work in his books Adaptation to Life, 1977, The Wisdom of The Ego, 1993, and The Natural History of Alcoholism-Revisited, 1995. He charted adult development in 824 men and women their recovery process of schizophrenia, heroin addiction, alcoholism, and personality disorder.

Other known researchers in the field of adult development, and specifically ego development, are Jane Loevinger, William Torbert, Robert Kegan, Otto Laske and Susanne Cook-Greuter. Their developmental theories have a number of key traits in common. Specifically, they describe an unfolding of human potential, they maintain that growth occurs in a sequence of stages and that later stages are only reached by going through earlier stages, world views evolve from simple to complex, and that people's stage of development influences what they notice and can influence.

Adult development is a field that is relatively new and still is in need of a lot of research. Associations such as the Society for Research in Adult Development, strive to explore the subject and draw new findings. There are many areas in this field that could be further explored such as the process of aging, personality development, biological characteristics, mental disorders, and cultural differences in adult development.

See also

• George Eman Vaillant
• Training and development
• Personal development
• Constructive Developmental Framework

External links

• Laboratory of Adult Development [1]

• Journal of Adult Development [2]

• Psychology and Aging [3]

• Talent Development Resources! [4]

• National Center for the Study of Adult Learning and Literacy
• [5]

References

Category:Developmental psychology