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User:Muffinwrites/Arctic ecology

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Arctic Ecology Lead edit

"Arctic ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between biotic and abiotic factors in the arctic, the region north of the Arctic Circle (66° 33’N).[1] This region is characterized by two biomes: taiga (or boreal forest) and tundra.[2] While the taiga has a more moderate climate and permits a diversity of both non-vascular and vascular plants,[3] the tundra has a limited growing season and stressful growing conditions due to intense cold, low precipitation,[4] and a lack of sunlight throughout the winter.[5] Sensitive ecosystems exist throughout the Arctic region, which are being impacted dramatically by global warming.[6]"[7]

  1. ^ "Arctic Weather and Climate". National Snow and Ice Data Center. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
  2. ^ "Arctic Ecosystems (U.S. National Park Service)". www.nps.gov. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
  3. ^ "Taiga - Climate, Biodiversity, Coniferous | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
  4. ^ "The tundra biome". ucmp.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
  5. ^ Terasmae, J.; Reeves, Andrew (20 April 2009). "Tundra". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2023-10-31.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  6. ^ "Tundra". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Retrieved 2023-10-31.
  7. ^ "Arctic ecology", Wikipedia, 2023-10-31, retrieved 2023-10-31

Arctic Ecology new outline ideas edit

Current Outline:

Lead

History

Environment

Biomes

Adaptations to Conditions

Human ecology in the Arctic

Effects of climate change on the Arctic

Further Exploration


New Outline:

Lead

Early Arctic history

History of Arctic exploration

Abiotic factors (biomes and environment)

Biotic factors (flora and fauna)

Human ecology

Effects of climate change in the arctic

Further exploration

Early human history in the Arctic edit

Current evidence of woolly mammoth death due to hunting dates hominid presence in the Arctic to as early as 45,000 years ago. It has been speculated that the hunting abilities and advanced tools of these early populations could have contributed to their ability to become established in the Arctic.[1] A subject of debate in current Arctic ecological research is whether these Arctic inhabitants belonged to the species Homo neanderthalensis, or whether they were early members of the species Homo sapiens sapiens, or modern-day humans.[2] This debate stems from a current lack of knowledge of the processes which led to the replacement of Neanderthal populations by Homo sapiens sapiens,[3][2] but there is agreement that evidence of tool-use and hunting in the Arctic suggests some form of hominid presence in this region.[2]

About 40,000 years ago, Neanderthals were globally replaced by modern humans, Homo sapiens sapiens.[3]

Paleo-arctic populations of Homo sapiens sapiens occupied northern Alaska around 10,000 years ago, during the transition between the Pleistocene era and the Holocene era. Speculative synthesis of known environmental change with dates of human presence indicates a potential link between the prey population cycles caused by environmental disturbance and human residence in Arctic habitats. These prey species, particularly bison and musk oxen, have been speculated to be dependent on environmental disturbance, which Mann et. al suggest would thus have made Paleo-arctic hunters dependent on this same disturbance, contributing to their decline in Arctic regions following the end of the Pleistocene. Further factors which this research indicates could have led to Paleo-arctic population migration away from the Arctic include the spreading of inhospitable habitats (tussock-tundra) and pests such as mosquitoes.[4]

Paleo-Eskimos followed the Paleo-arctic populations between 5,000[5] and 6,000[6] years ago, and research has suggested that they were a more wide-spread and lingering population with an ancestral relationship to modern-day indigenous Arctic inhabitants.[5] Genetic evidence has given rise to the theory that the Paleo-Eskimos were a singular people which resided in Alaska, Canada, and Greenland and subsisted by hunting large terrestrial mammals and seals.[6] Research also suggests shared genetic and cultural ancestry between this group and more Southern indigenous peoples.[7][6]

Dating back to a similar time period as the Paleo-Eskimos, evidence has been found of the Arctic Small Tool tradition (ASTt) culture.[8] This culture is a conceptual linkage between the similar tool-usage of multiple Arctic cultures, including Saqqaq and Pre-Dorset peoples.[9]

The migration of the early Inuit (Thule) peoples to the Arctic replaced Paleo-Eskimo populations from 700[6] to 800[10] years ago[6]. The use of the term 'Thule' to describe these peoples has been debated due to its "unrelated" use by the Nazi party.[10] The Thule peoples gave rise to the modern-day Inuit, one indigenous group currently residing in the North-American Arctic[5]. According to a University of Lapland publication, the Inuit are one of "over 40 different ethnic groups living in the Arctic".[11]

  1. ^ Pitulko, Vladimir V.; Tikhonov, Alexei N.; Pavlova, Elena Y.; Nikolskiy, Pavel A.; Kuper, Konstantin E.; Polozov, Roman N. (2016-01-15). "Early human presence in the Arctic: Evidence from 45,000-year-old mammoth remains". Science. 351 (6270): 260–263. doi:10.1126/science.aad0554. ISSN 0036-8075.
  2. ^ a b c Pavlov, Pavel; Svendsen, John Inge; Indrelid, Svein (2001-09-06). "Human presence in the European Arctic nearly 40,000 years ago". Nature. 413 (6851): 64–67. doi:10.1038/35092552. ISSN 0028-0836.
  3. ^ a b Shultz, Daniel R.; Montrey, Marcel; Shultz, Thomas R. (2019-06-12). "Comparing fitness and drift explanations of Neanderthal replacement". Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 286 (1904): 20190907. doi:10.1098/rspb.2019.0907. ISSN 0962-8452. PMC 6571460. PMID 31185865.
  4. ^ Mann, Daniel H.; Reanier, Richard E.; Peteet, Dorothy M.; Kunz, Michael L.; Johnson, Mark (2001). "Environmental Change and Arctic Paleoindians". Arctic Anthropology. 38 (2): 119–138. ISSN 0066-6939.
  5. ^ a b c Flegontov, Pavel; Altınışık, N. Ezgi; Changmai, Piya; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Adamski, Nicole; Bolnick, Deborah A.; Broomandkhoshbacht, Nasreen; Candilio, Francesca; Culleton, Brendan J.; Flegontova, Olga; Friesen, T. Max; Jeong, Choongwon; Harper, Thomas K.; Keating, Denise (2019-06-05). "Paleo-Eskimo genetic ancestry and the peopling of Chukotka and North America". Nature. 570 (7760): 236–240. doi:10.1038/s41586-019-1251-y. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 6942545. PMID 31168094.
  6. ^ a b c d e Raghavan, Maanasa; DeGiorgio, Michael; Albrechtsen, Anders; Moltke, Ida; Skoglund, Pontus; Korneliussen, Thorfinn S.; Grønnow, Bjarne; Appelt, Martin; Gulløv, Hans Christian; Friesen, T. Max; Fitzhugh, William; Malmström, Helena; Rasmussen, Simon; Olsen, Jesper; Melchior, Linea (2014-08-29). "The genetic prehistory of the New World Arctic". Science. 345 (6200). doi:10.1126/science.1255832. ISSN 0036-8075.
  7. ^ Dumond, Don E. (March 1987). "A Reexamination of Eskimo-Aleut Prehistory". American Anthropologist. 89 (1): 32–56. doi:10.1525/aa.1987.89.1.02a00020. ISSN 0002-7294.
  8. ^ Stewart, Henry (1989). "The Arctic Small Tool tradition and early Canadian Arctic Palaeo-Eskimo cultures". Études/Inuit/Studies. 13 (2): 69–101. ISSN 0701-1008.
  9. ^ Odess, Dan (2003). "An Early Arctic Small Tool tradition structure from interior Northwestern Alaska". Études/Inuit/Studies. 27 (1/2): 13–27. ISSN 0701-1008.
  10. ^ a b Jolicoeur, Patrick (2006-02-07). "Early Inuit (Thule Culture)". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Retrieved 2023-11-04.
  11. ^ "Indigenous Peoples". Arctic Centre. University of Lapland. Retrieved 2023-11-04.

Effects of climate change on Arctic ecology edit

An increase in temperature due to worldwide climate change has been observed to be greater in the Arctic than the "global average," with Arctic air temperatures warming twice as quickly.[1][2] The observation of the proportionally greater temperature increase in the Arctic has been termed "Arctic amplification".[3] Arctic amplification of climate change has impacted Arctic ecology by melting sea ice,[3] decreasing the salinity of Arctic waters,[4] altering ocean currents and water temperatures,[2] and increased precipitation, all of which could lead to a disruption of thermohaline circulation.[5] Furthermore, changes in the Arctic climate could disrupt ecosystem processes and thus threaten marine biodiversity, and the biodiversity of terrestrial species that depend on marine ecosystems.[1] There has been additional evidence found which further demonstrates that Arctic climate change directly impacts terrestrial ecosystems by melting permafrost,[6] which could contribute to methane emissions.[1]

"Degradation of the permafrost is leading to major ground surface subsidence and pounding. As the ground is melting away in many regions of the Arctic, the locations of towns and communities that have been inhabited for centuries are now in jeopardy. A condition known as drunken tree syndrome is being caused by this melting. Groundwater and river runoffs are being negatively impacted as well due to the release of hazardous wastes stored in permafrost and the damage done to human infrastructure by permafrost instability.[7]

Although warming conditions might increase CO
2 uptake for photosynthetic organisms in some places, scientists are concerned that melting permafrost will also release large amounts of carbon that was previously locked in permafrost. Higher temperatures increase soil decomposition, and if soil decomposition becomes higher than net primary production, global atmospheric carbon dioxide will in turn increase. Atmospheric sinks in the water table are also being reduced as the permafrost melts and decreases the height of the water table in the Arctic.[8]

The impacts of the release of carbon from the permafrost could be amplified by high levels of deforestation in the Boreal forests in Eurasia and Canada.

Due to the shifts in temperature and other ecological conditions, new species introduced to the ecosystem have also been able to survive and disrupt previous ecological relationships.[9]

Climate change has led to an increase in the number of non-indigenous species (NIS) introduced to the Arctic. Between 1960 and 2015, there were between 0-4 NIS discovered each year. However, parts of the Arctic, such as the Iceland Shelf have had a greater number of introductions and discoveries per year at around 14 NIS.[9] The aquatic species introduced accounted for 39% of the NIS species introduced to the Arctic region. This migration of NIS species has been attributed to climate-change-inducing human activities such as shipping, aquaculture, stocking, and building canals.[9] These NIS introductions have been labeled a major threat to global biodiversity.[10] Climate change has directly and indirectly decreased the general productivity of native species like the Eskimo curlew while increasing the number of noninvasive species introduced further altering ecosystem dynamics.[9]

Climate change has also been responsible for rising sea levels, changes in ocean currents, variations in temperature, and the amount of existing sea-ice.[11] These habitat and condition alterations in the Arctic have threatened many different species, especially migratory birds along the East Asian flyway, which is a route frequently used by many bird species and is protected by various countries.[12] The Eskimo curlew, a native species of bird, has gone nearly extinct due to overharvesting outside of the Arctic. With the sea levels also on the rise and an increased rate of coastal development, coastal and intertidal habitats have been on a decline, reducing the density of the species that rely on these conditions to survive.[12]

Arctic marine ecosystems are critical for global biodiversity as they contribute significantly to algal, microbial, and animal biodiversity.[13] This diverse array of species utilizes various Arctic environmental components including ice shelves, ice covers, cold seeps, and hot vents to survive. The major and rapid changes to these ecosystems due to climate change have resulted in increased river runoff, rain, permafrost and glacier melt. These environmental changes, paired with land development, have placed pressure on the Arctic ecosystems, leading to massive losses in biodiversity.[13] This has a direct and deleterious impact on marine ecosystems.

The Arctic has historically been deemed a low risk region for NIS invasion due to its harsh conditions, limited food sources, and limited access, which in turn resulted in low chances of survival and growth for the NIS.[9] However, due to the recent increases in the amount of human development paired with the melting of the ice due to climate change, the Arctic has been experiencing a more temperate climate. This has led to a higher survival rate for Southern species or NIS since the conditions have become more survivable for these species. In the long-term, the natural ecosystem and food webs are devastated since there are new causes of resource and land depletion.[14]

Long-term mitigation strategies need to be implemented to help monitor the species richness in areas such as the Arctic to understand the trends in biodiversity and how different local strategies that have been implemented either benefit or harm the ecosystem.[15] A mitigation strategy that can be beneficial in the protection of local biodiversity and reducing the introduction of NIS is making activities such as transportation that bring the NIS to the Arctic  more efficient.[16] Antifouling technologies involve specialized paints being applied to a ship’s hull to slow marine growth on the underwater area.[17] This technology has become more popular in recent years. These paints incorporate different biocides such as lead and copper and can help prevent settlement of different NIS on vehicles that transport goods to Arctic regions.[16] This process indirectly lowers the amount of NIS transferred to the Arctic by humans. This, however, does introduce chemicals into the marine environment causing various issues, which is why the use, quantity, and location of the biocides must be thoroughly considered and mitigated.

The biodiversity loss and ways to mitigate it can not be overly generalized, however, because each region of the Arctic and the species in those regions interact with various regional physicochemical conditions that strongly impact how they react to climate change.[13] The loss of biodiversity, however, is evident and does greatly impact the overall Arctic aquatic ecosystems and the Arctic food web."[18]

  1. ^ a b c Yamanouchi, Takashi; Takata, Kumiko (2020-09-01). "Rapid change of the Arctic climate system and its global influences - Overview of GRENE Arctic climate change research project (2011–2016)". Polar Science. 25: 100548. doi:10.1016/j.polar.2020.100548. ISSN 1873-9652.
  2. ^ a b Koenigk, Torben; Key, Jeff; Vihma, Timo (2020), Kokhanovsky, Alexander; Tomasi, Claudio (eds.), "Climate Change in the Arctic", Physics and Chemistry of the Arctic Atmosphere, Springer Polar Sciences, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 673–705, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-33566-3_11, ISBN 978-3-030-33566-3, retrieved 2023-11-05
  3. ^ a b Serreze, Mark C.; Barry, Roger G. (2011-05-01). "Processes and impacts of Arctic amplification: A research synthesis". Global and Planetary Change. 77 (1): 85–96. doi:10.1016/j.gloplacha.2011.03.004. ISSN 0921-8181.
  4. ^ Vavrus, Stephen J.; Holland, Marika M.; Jahn, Alexandra; Bailey, David A.; Blazey, Benjamin A. (2012-04-15). "Twenty-First-Century Arctic Climate Change in CCSM4". Journal of Climate. 25 (8): 2696–2710. doi:10.1175/JCLI-D-11-00220.1. ISSN 0894-8755.
  5. ^ Marotzke, Jochem (2000-02-15). "Abrupt climate change and thermohaline circulation: Mechanisms and predictability". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 97 (4): 1347–1350. doi:10.1073/pnas.97.4.1347. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 34301. PMID 10677464.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  6. ^ "Climate Change Indicators: Permafrost". United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2023-11-01. Retrieved 2023-11-05.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  7. ^ Langer, Moritz; von Deimling, Thomas Schneider; Westermann, Sebastian; Rolph, Rebecca; Rutte, Ralph; Antonova, Sofia; Rachold, Volker; Schultz, Michael; Oehme, Alexander; Grosse, Guido (2023-03-28). "Thawing permafrost poses environmental threat to thousands of sites with legacy industrial contamination". Nature Communications. 14 (1): 1721. doi:10.1038/s41467-023-37276-4. ISSN 2041-1723.
  8. ^ Oechel, Walter and George Vourlitis. “The Effects of Climate Charge on Land—Atmosphere Feedbacks in Arctic Tundra Regions.” Trends in Ecology & Evolution 9 (1994): 324-329. Accessed on February 23, 2014. Doi: 10.1016/0169-5347(94)90152-X.
  9. ^ a b c d e Chan, Farrah T.; Stanislawczyk, Keara; Sneekes, Anna C.; Dvoretsky, Alexander; Gollasch, Stephan; Minchin, Dan; David, Matej; Jelmert, Anders; Albretsen, Jon; Bailey, Sarah A. (2019). "Climate change opens new frontiers for marine species in the Arctic: Current trends and future invasion risks". Global Change Biology. 25 (1): 25–38. Bibcode:2019GCBio..25...25C. doi:10.1111/gcb.14469. ISSN 1365-2486. PMC 7379606. PMID 30295388.
  10. ^ Rotter, Ana; Klun, Katja; Francé, Janja; Mozetič, Patricija; Orlando-Bonaca, Martina (2020). "Non-indigenous Species in the Mediterranean Sea: Turning From Pest to Source by Developing the 8Rs Model, a New Paradigm in Pollution Mitigation". Frontiers in Marine Science. 7. doi:10.3389/fmars.2020.00178. ISSN 2296-7745.
  11. ^ Barber, David G.; Asplin, Matthew G.; Papakyriakou, Tim N.; Miller, Lisa; Else, Brent G. T.; Iacozza, John; Mundy, C. J.; Gosslin, M.; Asselin, Natalie C.; Ferguson, Steve; Lukovich, Jennifer V.; Stern, Gary A.; Gaden, Ashley; Pućko, Monika; Geilfus, N.-X. (2012-11-01). "Consequences of change and variability in sea ice on marine ecosystem and biogeochemical processes during the 2007–2008 Canadian International Polar Year program". Climatic Change. 115 (1): 135–159. Bibcode:2012ClCh..115..135B. doi:10.1007/s10584-012-0482-9. ISSN 1573-1480.
  12. ^ a b Yong, Ding Li; Heim, Wieland; Chowdhury, Sayam U.; Choi, Chang-Yong; Ktitorov, Pavel; Kulikova, Olga; Kondratyev, Alexander; Round, Philip D.; Allen, Desmond; Trainor, Colin R.; Gibson, Luke; Szabo, Judit K. (2021). "The State of Migratory Landbirds in the East Asian Flyway: Distributions, Threats, and Conservation Needs". Frontiers in Ecology and Evolution. 9. doi:10.3389/fevo.2021.613172. ISSN 2296-701X.
  13. ^ a b c Michel, Christine; Bluhm, Bodil; Ford, Violet; Gallucci, Vincent; Gaston, Anthony J.; Gordillo, Francisco J. L.; Gradinger, Rolf; Hopcroft, Russ; Jensen, Nina. "Marine Ecosystems - Arctic biodiversity, Conservation of Arctic Flora and Fauna (CAFF)". www.arcticbiodiversity.is. Retrieved 2023-10-16.
  14. ^ Solan, Martin; Archambault, Philippe; Renaud, Paul E.; März, Christian (2020-10-02). "The changing Arctic Ocean: consequences for biological communities, biogeochemical processes and ecosystem functioning". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 378 (2181): 20200266. Bibcode:2020RSPTA.37800266S. doi:10.1098/rsta.2020.0266. ISSN 1364-503X. PMC 7481657. PMID 32862816.
  15. ^ Gill, M. J.; Crane, K.; Hindrum, R.; Arneberg, P.; Bysveen, I.; Denisenko, N. V.; Gofman, V.; Grant-Friedman, A.; Gudmundsson, G.; Hopcroft, R. R.; Iken, K.; Labansen, A.; Liubina, O. S.; Melnikov, I. A.; Moore, S. E. (2011). "ARCTIC MARINE BIODIVERSITY MONITORING PLAN (CBMP-MARINE PLAN)". hdl:11374/1067. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)
  16. ^ a b Dafforn, Katherine A.; Lewis, John A.; Johnston, Emma L. (2011). "Antifouling strategies: history and regulation, ecological impacts and mitigation". Marine Pollution Bulletin. 62 (3): 453–465. Bibcode:2011MarPB..62..453D. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.01.012. ISSN 1879-3363. PMID 21324495.
  17. ^ Tripathi, Bijay P.; Dubey, Nidhi C.; Subair, Riyas; Choudhury, Soumydip; Stamm, Manfred (2016-01-07). "Enhanced hydrophilic and antifouling polyacrylonitrile membrane with polydopamine modified silica nanoparticles". RSC Advances. 6 (6): 4448–4457. Bibcode:2016RSCAd...6.4448T. doi:10.1039/C5RA22160A. ISSN 2046-2069.
  18. ^ "Arctic ecology", Wikipedia, 2023-11-04, retrieved 2023-11-05
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