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User:Mr. Ibrahem/Kerala2

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Geography edit

 
Anamudi, the highest peak in South India.
 
Tea and Coffee are produced in the hilly terrains of Wayanad.
 
Vembanad, a portion of Kerala backwaters, is the longest lake in India.
 
Ponnani Lighthouse beach

The state is wedged between the Lakshadweep Sea and the Western Ghats. Lying between northern latitudes 8°18' and 12°48' and eastern longitudes 74°52' and 77°22',[1] Kerala experiences humid tropical rainforest climate with some cyclones. The state has a coast of 590 km (370 mi)[2] and the width of the state varies between 11 and 121 kilometres (7 and 75 mi).[3] Geographically, Kerala can be divided into three climatically distinct regions: the eastern highlands; rugged and cool mountainous terrain, the central mid-lands; rolling hills, and the western lowlands; coastal plains.[4]: 110  Pre-Cambrian and Pleistocene geological formations compose the bulk of Kerala's terrain.[5][6] A catastrophic flood in Kerala in 1341 CE drastically modified its terrain and consequently affected its history; it also created a natural harbour for spice transport.[7] The eastern region of Kerala consists of high mountains, gorges and deep-cut valleys immediately west of the Western Ghats' rain shadow.[4]: 110  41 of Kerala's west-flowing rivers,[8] and 3 of its east-flowing ones originate in this region.[9][10] The Western Ghats form a wall of mountains interrupted only near Palakkad; hence also known Palghat, where the Palakkad Gap breaks.[11] The Western Ghats rise on average to 1,500 metres (4,900 feet) above sea level,[12] while the highest peaks reach around 2,500 metres (8,200 feet).[13] Anamudi in the Idukki district is the highest peak in south India, is at an elevation of 2,695 m (8,842 ft).[14] The Western Ghats mountain chain is recognised as one of the world's eight "hottest hotspots" of biological diversity and is listed among UNESCO World Heritage Sites.[15] The chain's forests are considered to be older than the Himalaya mountains.[15] The Athirappilly Falls, which is situated on the background of Western Ghat mountain ranges, is also known as The Niagara of India.[16] It is located in the Chalakudy River and is the largest waterfall in the state.[16] Wayanad is the sole Plateau in Kerala.[17] The eastern regions in the districts of Wayanad, Malappuram (Chaliyar valley at Nilambur), and Palakkad (Attappadi Valley), which together form parts of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and a continuation of the Mysore Plateau, are known for natural Gold fields, along with the adjoining districts of Karnataka.[18]

 
Topography of Kerala

Kerala's western coastal belt is relatively flat compared to the eastern region,[4]: 33  and is criss-crossed by a network of interconnected brackish canals, lakes, estuaries,[19] and rivers known as the Kerala Backwaters.[20] Kuttanad, also known as The Rice Bowl of Kerala, has the lowest altitude in India, and is also one of the few places in world where cultivation takes place below sea level.[21][22] The country's longest lake Vembanad, dominates the backwaters; it lies between Alappuzha and Kochi and is about 200 km2 (77 sq mi) in area.[23] Around eight percent of India's waterways are found in Kerala.[24] Kerala's 44 rivers include the Periyar; 244 kilometres (152 mi), Bharathapuzha; 209 kilometres (130 mi), Pamba; 176 kilometres (109 mi), Chaliyar; 169 kilometres (105 mi), Kadalundipuzha; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Chalakudipuzha; 130 kilometres (81 mi), Valapattanam; 129 kilometres (80 mi) and the Achankovil River; 128 kilometres (80 mi). The average length of the rivers is 64 kilometres (40 mi). Many of the rivers are small and entirely fed by monsoon rain.[25] As Kerala's rivers are small and lacking in delta, they are more prone to environmental effects. The rivers face problems such as sand mining and pollution.[26] The state experiences several natural hazards like landslides, floods and droughts. The state was also affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami,[27] and in 2018 received the worst flooding in nearly a century.[28]

Climate edit

With around 120–140 rainy days per year,[29]: 80  Kerala has a wet and maritime tropical climate influenced by the seasonal heavy rains of the southwest summer monsoon and northeast winter monsoon.[30] Around 65% of the rainfall occurs from June to August corresponding to the Southwest monsoon, and the rest from September to December corresponding to Northeast monsoon.[30] The moisture-laden winds of the Southwest monsoon, on reaching the southernmost point of the Indian Peninsula, because of its topography, divides into two branches; the "Arabian Sea Branch" and the "Bay of Bengal Branch".[31] The "Arabian Sea Branch" of the Southwest monsoon first hits the Western Ghats,[32] making Kerala the first state in India to receive rain from the Southwest monsoon.[33][34] The distribution of pressure patterns is reversed in the Northeast monsoon, during this season the cold winds from North India pick up moisture from the Bay of Bengal and precipitate it on the east coast of peninsular India.[35][36] In Kerala, the influence of the Northeast monsoon is seen in southern districts only.[37] Kerala's rainfall averages 2,923 mm (115 in) annually.[38] Some of Kerala's drier lowland regions average only 1,250 mm (49 in); the mountains of the eastern Idukki district receive more than 5,000 mm (197 in) of orographic precipitation: the highest in the state. In eastern Kerala, a drier tropical wet and dry climate prevails. During the summer, the state is prone to gale-force winds, storm surges, cyclone-related torrential downpours, occasional droughts, and rises in sea level.[39]: 26, 46, 52  The mean daily temperature ranges from 19.8 °C to 36.7 °C.[40] Mean annual temperatures range from 25.0 to 27.5 °C in the coastal lowlands to 20.0–22.5 °C in the eastern highlands.[39]: 65 

Climate data for Kerala
Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Year
Mean daily maximum °C (°F) 30
(86) 		31
(88) 		32
(90) 		34
(93) 		34
(93) 		30
(86) 		29
(84) 		29
(84) 		29
(84) 		30
(86) 		30
(86) 		31
(88) 		34
(93)
Mean daily minimum °C (°F) 22
(72) 		23
(73) 		24
(75) 		25
(77) 		25
(77) 		24
(75) 		23
(73) 		23
(73) 		23
(73) 		23
(73) 		23
(73) 		22
(72) 		22
(72)
Average rainfall mm (inches) 8.7
(0.34) 		14.7
(0.58) 		30.4
(1.20) 		109.5
(4.31) 		239.8
(9.44) 		649.8
(25.58) 		726.1
(28.59) 		419.5
(16.52) 		244.2
(9.61) 		292.3
(11.51) 		150.9
(5.94) 		37.5
(1.48) 		2,923.4
(115.1)
Source: [38][40]

Flora and fauna edit

Main article: Flora and fauna of Kerala
 
Silent Valley National Park
 
The Cardamom Hills are notable for biodiversity

Most of the biodiversity is concentrated and protected in the Western Ghats. Three quarters of the land area of Kerala was under thick forest up to 18th century.[41] As of 2004, over 25% of India's 15,000 plant species are in Kerala. Out of the 4,000 flowering plant species; 1,272 of which are endemic to Kerala, 900 are medicinal, and 159 are threatened.[42]: 11  Its 9,400 km2 of forests include tropical wet evergreen and semi-evergreen forests (lower and middle elevations—3,470 km2), tropical moist and dry deciduous forests (mid-elevations—4,100 km2 and 100 km2, respectively), and montane subtropical and temperate (shola) forests (highest elevations—100 km2). Altogether, 24% of Kerala is forested.[42]: 12  Four of the world's Ramsar Convention listed wetlands—Lake Sasthamkotta, Ashtamudi Lake, Thrissur-Ponnani Kole Wetlands, and the Vembanad-Kol wetlands—are in Kerala,[43] as well as 1455.4 km2 of the vast Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve and 1828 km2 of the Agasthyamala Biosphere Reserve.[44] Subjected to extensive clearing for cultivation in the 20th century,[45]: 6–7  much of the remaining forest cover is now protected from clearfelling.[46] Eastern Kerala's windward mountains shelter tropical moist forests and tropical dry forests, which are common in the Western Ghats.[47][48] The world's oldest teak plantation 'Conolly's Plot' is in Nilambur.[49]

Kerala's fauna are notable for their diversity and high rates of endemism: it includes 118 species of mammals (1 endemic), 500 species of birds, 189 species of freshwater fish, 173 species of reptiles (10 of them endemic), and 151 species of amphibians (36 endemic).[50] These are threatened by extensive habitat destruction, including soil erosion, landslides, salinisation, and resource extraction. In the forests, sonokeling, Dalbergia latifolia, anjili, mullumurikku, Erythrina, and Cassia number among the more than 1,000 species of trees in Kerala. Other plants include bamboo, wild black pepper, wild cardamom, the calamus rattan palm, and aromatic vetiver grass, Vetiveria zizanioides.[42]: 12  Indian elephant, Bengal tiger, Indian leopard, Nilgiri tahr, common palm civet, and grizzled giant squirrels are also found in the forests.[42]: 12, 174–75  Reptiles include the king cobra, viper, python, and mugger crocodile. Kerala's birds include the Malabar trogon, the great hornbill, Kerala laughingthrush, darter and southern hill myna. In the lakes, wetlands, and waterways, fish such as Kadu, Red Line Torpedo Barb and choottachi; orange chromide—Etroplus maculatus are found.[51][42]: 163–65  Recently, a newly described tardigrade (water bears) species collected from Vadakara coast of Kerala named after Kerala State; Stygarctus keralensis.[52]

Subdivisions edit

 
Administrative Subdivisions
Main articles: Districts of Kerala; Corporations, municipalities and taluks of Kerala; and List of cities and towns in Kerala
See also: Local governance in Kerala

The state's 14 districts are distributed among six regions: North Malabar (far-north Kerala), South Malabar (north-central Kerala), Kochi (central Kerala), Northern Travancore, Central Travancore (southern Kerala) and Southern Travancore (far-south Kerala). The districts which serve as administrative regions for taxation purposes are further subdivided into 27 revenue subdivisions and 77 taluks, which have fiscal and administrative powers over settlements within their borders, including maintenance of local land records. Kerala's taluks are further sub-divided into 1,674 revenue villages.[53][54] Since the 73rd and 74th amendments to the Constitution of India, the local government institutions function as the third tier of government, which constitutes 14 District Panchayats, 152 Block Panchayats, 941 Grama Panchayats, 87 Municipalities, six Municipal Corporations and one Township.[55] Mahé, a part of the Indian union territory of Puducherry,[56] though 647 kilometres (402 mi) away from it,[57] is a coastal exclave surrounded by Kerala on all of its landward approaches. The Kannur District surrounds Mahé on three sides with the Kozhikode District on the fourth.[58]

In 1664, the municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar, making it the first municipality in Indian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch authority got weaker in 18th century.[59] The municipalities of Kozhikode, Palakkad, Fort Kochi, Kannur, and Thalassery, were founded on 1 November 1866[60][61][62][63] of the British Indian Empire, making them the first modern municipalities in the state of Kerala. The Municipality of Thiruvananthapuram came into existence in 1920. After two decades, during the reign of Sree Chithira Thirunal, Thiruvananthapuram Municipality was converted into Corporation on 30 October 1940, making it the oldest Municipal Corporation of Kerala.[64] The first Municipal Corporation founded after the independence of India as well as the second-oldest Municipal Corporation of the state is at Kozhikode in the year 1962.[65] There are six Municipal corporations in Kerala that govern Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kochi, Kollam, Thrissur, and Kannur.[66] The Thiruvananthapuram Municipal Corporation is the largest corporation in Kerala while Kochi metropolitan area named Kochi UA is the largest urban agglomeration.[67] According to a survey by economics research firm Indicus Analytics in 2007, Thiruvananthapuram, Kozhikode, Kochi, Kollam, Thrissur are among the "best cities in India to live"; the survey used parameters such as health, education, environment, safety, public facilities and entertainment to rank the cities.[68]

Government and administration edit

Main articles: Government of Kerala and Kerala Legislature
See also: Politics of Kerala and Political parties in Kerala
 
The city of Thiruvananthapuram serves as the administrative headquarters of Kerala.
 
The Kerala High Court complex in Kochi.
 
The Kerala Secretariat in Thiruvananthapuram – seat of executive administration of Kerala, and formerly of the legislative assembly
 
The Kerala Legislative Assembly Building in Thiruvananthapuram

Kerala hosts two major political alliances: the United Democratic Front (UDF), led by the Indian National Congress; and the Left Democratic Front (LDF), led by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) (CPI(M)). As of 2021 Kerala Legislative Assembly election, the LDF is the ruling coalition; Pinarayi Vijayan of the Communist Party of India (Marxist) is the Chief Minister, while V. D. Satheesan of the Indian National Congress is the Leader of the Opposition. According to the Constitution of India, Kerala has a parliamentary system of representative democracy; universal suffrage is granted to residents.[69] The government is organised into the three branches:

  1. Legislature: The unicameral legislature, the Kerala Legislative Assembly popularly known as Niyamasabha, comprises elected members and special office bearers; the Speaker and Deputy Speaker elected by the members from among themselves. Assembly meetings are presided over by the Speaker and in the Speaker's absence, by the Deputy Speaker. The state has 140 assembly constituencies.[70] The state elects 20 and 9 members for representation in the Lok Sabha and the Rajya Sabha, respectively.[71]
  2. Executive: The Governor of Kerala is the constitutional head of state, and is appointed by the President of India.[72] Arif Mohammad Khan is the Governor of Kerala.[73] The executive authority is headed by the Chief Minister of Kerala, who is the head of government and is vested with extensive executive powers; the head of the majority party in the Legislative Assembly is appointed to the post by the Governor.[72] The Council of Ministers has its members appointed by the Governor, taking the advice of the Chief Minister.[72] The executive administration is based in Thiruvananthapuram at State Secretariat complex. Each district has a district administrator appointed by government called District collector for executive administration. Auxiliary authorities known as panchayats, for which local body elections are regularly held, govern local affairs.[74]
  3. Judiciary: The judiciary consists of the Kerala High Court and a system of lower courts.[75] The High Court, located in Kochi,[76] has a Chief Justice along with 35 permanent and twelve additional pro tempore justices as of 2021.[77] The high court also hears cases from the Union Territory of Lakshadweep.[78][79]

The local government bodies; Panchayat, Municipalities and Corporations have existed in Kerala since 1959, however, the major initiative to decentralise the governance was started in 1993, conforming to the constitutional amendments of central government in this direction.[80] With the enactment of Kerala Panchayati Raj Act and Kerala Municipality Act in 1994, the state implemented reforms in local self-governance.[81] The Kerala Panchayati Raj Act envisages a 3-tier system of local government with Gram panchayat, Block panchayat and District Panchayat forming a hierarchy.[82] The acts ensure a clear demarcation of power among these institutions.[80] However, the Kerala Municipality Act envisages a single-tier system for urban areas, with the institution of municipality designed to par with the Gram panchayat of the former system. Substantial administrative, legal and financial powers are delegated to these bodies to ensure efficient decentralisation.[83] As per the present norms, the state government devolves about 40% of the state plan outlay to the local government.[84] Kerala was declared as the first digital state of India on 27 February 2016.[85] The India Corruption Survey 2019 by Transparency International declared Kerala the least-corrupt state in India.[86] The Public Affairs Index-2020 released by the Public Affairs Centre, India, designated Kerala as the best governed Indian state.[87]

Economy edit

Main article: Economy of Kerala
 
The city of Kochi is the largest financial, commercial, and industrial hub in Kerala, with the highest GDP as well as the highest GDP per capita in the state.[88][89]

After independence, the state was managed as a democratic socialist welfare economy.[90] From the 1990s, liberalisation of the mixed economy allowed Licence Raj restrictions against capitalism and foreign direct investment to be lightened, leading to economic expansion and an increase in employment. In the fiscal year 2018–19, the nominal gross state domestic product (GSDP) was ₹7.82 lakh crore (US$98 billion).[91] GSDP growth; 11.4% in 2018–2019[91] and 10.5% in 2017–2018[91] had been high compared to an average of 2.3% annually in the 1980s and between 5.1%[92]: 8  and 6.0%[93] in the 1990s.[92]: 8  The state recorded 8.9% growth in enterprises from 1998 to 2005, higher than the national rate of 4.8%.[94][95] The "Kerala phenomenon" or "Kerala model of development" of very high human development and in comparison low economic development has resulted from a strong service sector.[39]: 48 [96]: 1  In 2019–20, the tertiary sector contributed around 63% of the state's GSVA, compared to 28% by secondary sector, and 8% by primary sector.[97] In the period between 1960 and 2020, Kerala's economy was gradually shifting from an agrarian economy into a service-based one.[97]

 
Technopark at Thiruvananthapuram, the first and largest information technology (IT) park in India
 
Vallarpadam Terminal at Kochi, the first transshipment terminal in India
 
A Shopping mall at Kozhikode
 
Mappila Bay harbour at Kannur

The state's service sector which accounts for around 63% of its revenue is mainly based upon Hospitality industry, Tourism, Ayurveda&Medical Services, Pilgrimage, Information technology, Transportation, Financial sector, and Education.[98] Major initiatives under the industrial sector include Cochin Shipyard, Shipbuilding, Oil refinery, Software Industry, Coastal mineral industries,[99] food processing, marine products processing, and Rubber based products. The primary sector of the state is mainly based upon Cash crops.[100] Kerala produces a significant amount of national output of the cash crops such as Coconut, Tea, Coffee, pepper, Natural rubber, Cardamom, and Cashew in India.[100] The cultivation of food crops began to reduce since 1950's.[100] The Migrant labourers in Kerala are a significant workforce in its industrial and agricultural sectors. Being home to only 1.18% of the total land area of India and 2.75% of its population, Kerala contributes more than 4% to the Gross Domestic Product of India.

Kerala's economy depends significantly on emigrants working in foreign countries, mainly in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and the remittances annually contribute more than a fifth of GSDP.[101] The state witnessed significant emigration during the Gulf Boom of the 1970s and early 1980s. In 2008, the Persian Gulf countries together had a Keralite population of more than 25 lakh(2.5 million), who sent home annually a sum of US$6.81 billion, which is the highest among Indian states and more than 15.1% of remittances to India in 2008.[102] In 2012, Kerala still received the highest remittances of all states: US$11.3 billion, which was nearly 16% of the US$71 billion remittances to the country.[103] In 2015, NRI deposits in Kerala have soared to over ₹1 lakh crore (US$13 billion), amounting to one-sixth of all the money deposited in NRI accounts, which comes to about ₹7 lakh crore (US$88 billion).[104] Malappuram district has the highest proportion of emigrant households in state.[97] A study commissioned by the Kerala State Planning Board, suggested that the state look for other reliable sources of income, instead of relying on remittances to finance its expenditure.[105]

A decline of about 300,000 in the number of emigrants from the state was recorded during the period between 2013 and 2018.[106] The total remittances received by the emigrants stood at ₹85,100 crore (US$11 billion) in the year 2018.[106] According to a study done in 2013, ₹17,500 crore (US$2.2 billion) was the total amount paid to migrant labourers in the state every year.[107] The tertiary sector comprises services such as transport, storage, communications, tourism, banking, insurance and real estate. In 2011–2012, it contributed 63.2% of the state's GDP, agriculture and allied sectors contributed 15.7%, while manufacturing, construction and utilities contributed 21.1%.[108] Around 600 varieties[42]: 5  of rice, which is Kerala's most used staple and cereal crop,[109]: 5  are harvested from 3105.21 km2; a decline from 5883.4 km2 in 1990.[109]: 5  6,88,859 tonnes of rice are produced per year.[110] Other key crops include coconut; 899,198 ha, tea, coffee; 23% of Indian production,[111]: 13  or 57,000 tonnes,[111]: 6–7  rubber, cashews, and spices—including pepper, cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg.

As of March 2002, Kerala's banking sector comprised 3341 local branches: each branch served 10,000 people, lower than the national average of 16,000; the state has the third-highest bank penetration among Indian states.[112] On 1 October 2011, Kerala became the first state in the country to have at least one banking facility in every village.[113] Unemployment in 2007 was estimated at 9.4%;[114] chronic issues are underemployment, low employability of youth, and a low female labour participation rate of only 13.5%,[115]: 5, 13  as was the practice of Nokku kooli, "wages for looking on".[116] (On 30 April 2018, the Kerala state government issued an order to abolish Nokku Kooli, to take effect on 1 May.[117]) By 1999–2000, the rural and urban poverty rates dropped to 10.0% and 9.6%, respectively.[118]

The Grand Kerala Shopping Festival (GKSF) was started in 2007, covering more than 3000 outlets across the nine cities of Kerala with huge tax discounts, VAT refunds and huge array of prizes.[119] Lulu International Mall at Thiruvananthapuram is the largest Shopping Mall in India.[120]

 
Coconuts are an important regional cash crop.

The state's budget of 2020–2021 was ₹1.15 lakh crore (US$14 billion).[121] The state government's tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) amounted to ₹67,420 crore (US$8.4 billion) in 2020–21; up from ₹55,671 crore (US$7.0 billion) in 2019–20. Its non-tax revenues (excluding the shares from Union tax pool) of the Government of Kerala reached ₹14,587 crore (US$1.8 billion) in 2020–2021.[121] However, Kerala's high ratio of taxation to GSDP has not alleviated chronic budget deficits and unsustainable levels of government debt, which have impacted social services.[122] A record total of 223 hartals were observed in 2006, resulting in a revenue loss of over ₹2,000 crore (US$250 million).[123] Kerala's 10% rise in GDP is 3% more than the national GDP. In 2013, capital expenditure rose 30% compared to the national average of 5%, owners of two-wheelers rose by 35% compared to the national rate of 15%, and the teacher-pupil ratio rose 50% from 2:100 to 4:100.[124]

The Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board is a government owned financial institution in the state to mobilize funds for infrastructure development from outside the state revenue, aiming at overall infrastructure development of the state.[125][126] In November 2015, the Ministry of Urban Development selected seven cities of Kerala for a comprehensive development program known as the Atal Mission for Rejuvenation and Urban Transformation (AMRUT).[127] A package of ₹2.5 million (US$31,000) was declared for each of the cities to develop service level improvement plan (SLIP), a plan for better functioning of the local urban bodies in the cities of Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Alappuzha, Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode, and Palakkad.[128]

Information Technology edit

 
Infopark, Kochi

Kerala has focused more attention towards growth of Information Technology sector with formation of Technopark, Thiruvananthapuram which is one of the largest IT employer in Kerala. It was the first technology park in India[129][130] and with the inauguration of the Thejaswini complex on 22 February 2007, Technopark became the largest IT Park in India.[131] Software giants like Infosys, Oracle, Tata Consultancy Services, Capgemini, HCL, UST Global, NeST and Suntec have offices in the state. The state has a second major IT hub, the Infopark centred in Kochi with "spokes"(it acts as the "hub") in Thrissur and Alleppy. As of 2014, Infopark generates one-third of total IT Revenues of the state[132][133] with key offices of IT majors like Tata Consultancy Services, Cognizant, Wipro, UST Global, IBS Software Services etc. and Multinational corporations like KPMG, Ernst & Young, EXL Service, Etisalat DB Telecom, Nielsen Audio, Xerox ACS, Tata ELXSI etc. Kochi also has another major project SmartCity under construction, built in partnership with Dubai Government. A third major IT Hub is under construction centred around Kozhikode known as Cyberpark.[134][135][136] Kerala is the first Indian state to make Internet access a basic right.[97] As on 2019, Kerala's Internet penetration rate is the second-highest in India only after to Delhi.[97]

Industries edit

Traditional industries manufacturing items; coir, handlooms, and handicrafts employ around one million people.[137] Kerala supplies 60% of the total global produce of white coir fibre. India's first coir factory was set up in Alleppey in 1859–60.[138] The Central Coir Research Institute was established there in 1959. As per the 2006–2007 census by SIDBI, there are 14,68,104 micro, small and medium enterprises in Kerala employing 30,31,272 people.[139][140] The KSIDC has promoted more than 650 medium and large manufacturing firms in Kerala, creating employment for 72,500 people.[141] A mining sector of 0.3% of GSDP involves extraction of ilmenite, kaolin, bauxite, silica, quartz, rutile, zircon, and sillimanite.[110] Other major sectors are tourism, medical sector, educational sector, banking, ship building, oil refinery, infrastructure, manufacturing, home gardens, animal husbandry and business process outsourcing.

Agriculture edit

 
Jackfruits are the state fruit, and are a cultural icon of Kerala.
 
A paddy field at Palakkad, also known as The Granary of Kerala

The major change in agriculture in Kerala occurred in the 1970s when production of rice fell due to increased availability of rice all over India and decreased availability of labour.[142] Consequently, investment in rice production decreased and a major portion of the land shifted to the cultivation of perennial tree crops and seasonal crops.[143][144] Profitability of crops fell due to a shortage of farm labour, the high price of land, and the uneconomic size of operational holdings.[145] Only 27.3% of the families in Kerala depend upon agriculture for their livelihood, which is also the least curresponding rate in India.[146]

Kerala produces 97% of the national output of black pepper[147] and accounts for 85% of the natural rubber in the country.[148][149] Coconut, tea, coffee, cashew, and spices—including cardamom, vanilla, cinnamon, and nutmeg are the main agricultural products.[4]: 74 [150][151][152][153][154] Around 80% of India's export quality cashew kernels are prepared in Kollam.[155] The key cash crop is Coconut and Kerala ranks first in the area of coconut cultivation in India.[156] In 1960–61, about 70% of the Coconuts produced in India were from Kerala, which have reduced to 42% in 2011–12.[156] Around 90% of the total Cardamom produced in India is from Kerala.[97] India is the second-largest producer of Cardamom in world.[97] About 20% of the total Coffee produced in India are from Kerala.[100] The key agricultural staple is rice, with varieties grown in extensive paddy fields.[157] Home gardens made up a significant portion of the agricultural sector.[158] Related animal husbandry is touted by proponents as a means of alleviating rural poverty and unemployment among women, the marginalised, and the landless.[159][160] The state government promotes these activities via educational campaigns and the development of new cattle breeds such as the Sunandini.[161][162] Though the contribution of the agricultural sector to the state economy was on the decline in 2012–13, through the strength of the allied livestock sector, it has picked up from 7.0% (2011–12) to 7.2%. In the 2013–14 fiscal period, the contribution has been estimated at a high of 7.8%. The total growth of the farm sector has recorded a 4.4% increase in 2012–13, over a 1.3% growth in the previous fiscal year. The agricultural sector has a share of 9.3% in the sectoral distribution of Gross State Domestic Product at Constant Price, while the secondary and tertiary sectors have contributed 23.9% and 66.7%, respectively.[163]

There is a preference for organic products and home farming compared to synthetic fertilizers and pesticides.[164][165] Forest gardens are common and known by the name home gardens. According to the English horticulturist Robert Hart, Kerala is "from the agroforestry point of view, perhaps the world's most advanced country, with an extraordinary intensivity of cultivation of some forest gardens."[166]

Fisheries edit

 
Cheena vala (Chinese fishing net)

With 590 kilometres (370 miles) of coastal belt,[167] 400,000 hectares of inland water resources[168] and approximately 220,000 active fishermen,[169] Kerala is one of the leading producers of fish in India.[170] According to 2003–04 reports, about 11 lakh(1.1 million) people earn their livelihood from fishing and allied activities such as drying, processing, packaging, exporting and transporting fisheries. The annual yield of the sector was estimated as 6,08,000 tons in 2003–04.[171] This contributes to about 3% of the total economy of the state. In 2006, around 22% of the total Indian marine fishery yield was from Kerala.[172] During the southwest monsoon, a suspended mud bank develops along the shore, which in turn leads to calm ocean water, peaking the output of the fishing industry. This phenomenon is locally called chakara.[173][174] The waters provide a large variety of fish: pelagic species; 59%, demersal species; 23%, crustaceans, molluscs and others for 18%.[172] Around 10.5 lakh(1.050 million) fishermen haul an annual catch of 668,000 tonnes as of a 1999–2000 estimate; 222 fishing villages are strung along the 590-kilometre (370-mile) coast. Another 113 fishing villages dot the hinterland.

Background radiation levels edit

Minerals including Ilmenite, Monazite, Thorium, and Titanium, are found in the coastal belt of Kerala.[99] Kerala's coastal belt of Karunagappally is known for high background radiation from thorium-containing monazite sand. In some coastal panchayats, median outdoor radiation levels are more than 4 mGy/yr and, in certain locations on the coast, it is as high as 70 mGy/yr.[175]

  1. ^ "Physical and Anatomical Characteristic of Wood of Some Less-Known Tree Species of Kerala" (PDF). Kerala Forest Research Institute. Government of Kerala. Retrieved 18 November 2012.
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