Indonesian architectural glossary edit
Lead edit
John Winston Howard AC (born 26 July 1939) was the 25th Prime Minister of Australia from 11 March 1996 to 3 December 2007. He is the second-longest serving Australian Prime Minister after Sir Robert Menzies.
Howard was a member of the Australian House of Representatives from 1974 to 2007, representing the Division of Bennelong, New South Wales. He served as Treasurer in the government of Malcolm Fraser from 1977–1983. He was Leader of the Liberal Party and Coalition Opposition from 1985–1989, which included the 1987 federal election against Bob Hawke. He was re-elected as Leader of the Opposition in 1995. Howard led the Liberal-National Coalition to victory at the 1996 federal election, defeating Paul Keating's Labor government and ending a record 13 years of Coalition opposition.
Howard was sworn in as Prime Minister on 11 March 1996. Howard's government was re-elected at the 1998, 2001 and 2004 elections. Howard's coalition government was defeated at the 2007 election, by the Australian Labor Party led by Kevin Rudd. Howard also lost his electoral division of Bennelong to Labor's Maxine McKew, making him the second Australian Prime Minister, after Stanley Bruce in 1929, to lose his own seat.
Howard's is an economic libertarian and a self-avowed social conservative, who prided himself on a common man touch and as one who could read the electorate's mind. Major issues for the Howard Government were taxation, industrial relations, immigration, the Iraq war, and aboriginal relations. He won four of the six elections he contested as Liberal Party leader.
- How to put this in an encyclopedia:
The concerns of Howard's key supporters are family, security, order, decency, economic growth, social unity, individual responsibility and suspicion of special deals for minorities.
1987 1996 2001 2004 2007
Sasak edit
Sasak architecture
Background edit
Lombok lies immediately east of Bali and approximately the same size, however, its climate and terrain differ. The majority of the island's population is the central plain between the mountainous north and the barren, arid south. Lombok's west has a large immigrant Balinese population and their houses and temples are similar to those of Bali.
The Muslim and animist Sasak majority live in the drier eastern part of the island. Their houses rise in tiers up the hot bare hills of Lombok's southern peninsula. The majority of the traditional houses in the more developed parts of the island are no longer used. However, in the southern part of the island they are still lived in as most villagers cannot afford to change their way of life, but also because they are proud of their culture and as tourism increases there is a financial incentive to maintain the structures.
Villages are clustered on low escarpments to conserve arable land. A village is approached via a path leading to a narrow gateway, and the village rises to the crown of the hill with a few lateral paths and many zig-zagging trails accessing houses. A thatched roof mosque with a square pyramid or double pyramid mosque forms the centre of the village.
Lumbung edit
However, pile-built, bonnet-rice barns known as lumbung are the pride of Sasak vernacular architecture. They are built in rows along the easier lower paths of a village. The structures have only one opening, which is a high window into which rice is loaded twice a year. Four 1.5 metre hardwood posts are mounted on a level, sundried mud and buffalo-dung platform, and discs known as jelepreng are set towards the top to prevent rodent ingress. Two lateral beams are carried by the posts on which sits a cantilevered frame which in turn supports the bamboo rafters.
Several lumbung owned by separate families are built end to end a few metres apart.
Javanese traditional vernacular architecture edit
Unlike, most of South East Asia, traditional homes in Java (and neighbouring Bali) are not built on piles or stilts, rather they are built on a ground-based foundations. This tradition is thought to have arisen during Indonesia's Classical Era (5th to 15th centuries) during which there were close cultural contacts with India where such construction is still common practice. Classical Javanese temple reliefs from this era (such as Borobudur temple) do depict, however, dwellings that closely resemble stilt from Sumatra.
Balinese traditional vernacular architecture edit
Balinese rice barn resembles typical south east Asian post and beam house, despite difference in main residential.
Sundanese architecture edit
Traditional homes of Sunda were raised off the ground with a curved roof ridge and crossed gable ends.[1] (p15) Raised by a smaller amount.
Redirects edit
The ‘‘’Omo sebua’’’ of Nias (redirect Nias house, Nias architecture) Batak architecture [Rumah Gadang]] of the Minangkabau. Already started. Needs expansion Riau architecture Sundanese homes Traditional Javanese homes, architecture of Java, Javanese architecture Dayak: see long house Balinese homes Balinese temple architecture
Lombok homes, Sasak house, Lombok architecture, homes of Lombok Tongkanan Sumbawa Timor Papua
• Indonesian Islamic architecture, Islamic architecture of Indonesia, Islamic architecture in Indonesia
• Indonesian Hindu architecture, Hindu architecture of Indonesia, Hindu architecture in Indonesia
• Indonesian colonial architecture, Colonial architecture of Indonesia, Colonial architecture in Indonesia, Dutch colonial architecture of Indonesia, Dutch colonial architecture in Indonesia, Colonial architecture of the Dutch East Indies, Dutch East Indies colonial architecture, Colonial architecture in the Dutch East Indies
• Kraton
Javanese architecture edit
Wood has been the material of choice for domestic life for centuries. Of the many fine woods that grow in Java, teak (Tectona grandis), is foremost for building and furniture. The Javanese and Indonesian word for teak is jati, which denotes purity and truth. Growing in great long trunks once highly prized for shipmasts, teak is hard and resistant to moisture and pests. It is cool to the skin, takes a blade well, and weathers to a smooth oily finish.[2] When paired with palm and grass fibres, rattans and bamboos for texture, it provides strength and durability. Teak takes approximately 80 years to mature and old pieces are now prized by designers.[3]
(Scan print Schoppert p. 15)
Break edit
Influence of climate edit
Tropical climate shapes both house and furniture. Tempertaure are high and although stable around the clock in the lowlands, can drop quickly in mountainous areas. Humidity is high and unkind to perishable materials.
Austronesian ancestry edit
Today’s Javanese are descendant from Austronesian-speaking peoples who arrived some 5000 years ago after an island-hopping journey from Southern China, to Taiwan, the Philippines, Sulawesi, and then to Java and the rest of Indonesia. Astronesians brought with a shipbuilding, rice-growing, textile-making, architectural way of life which is still evident today.
Stone carved reliefs on Borobudur, Prambanan, and temples in East Java show houses built on stilts and with curving and projecting steeply pitched roof ridges. While these reliefs suggest houses on piles were in common use from the the 9th to 12th centuries, between the 13th and 14th century the preferred Javanese style (east and central Java) was for the floors to be on the ground with piles becoming increasingly less common. Pile built houses remained the norm in west Java (Sunda).[4]
Diversity on Java edit
Diversity had long been a characteristic of Austronesian people as they had to respond to a broad range of ecological niches around South East Asian (the nusantara) which encouraged a range of various and interdependent economies and societies. As is the norm throughout South East Asia, Java’s population is far from homogenous and is can be broadly categorised into two large ethnic groupings; the Javanese and Sundanese. A third large group is the Madurese and a number of smaller indengenous sub-groupings in more remote areas and a cosmopolitan mix of recent arrivals from within Indonesia and further afield. Although this article predominantly deals with the Javanese architecture, it does cover influences with from and on other styles.
Outside influence edit
Drawing from the Austronesian explorations of the East Asia, and the Pacific and Indian Oceans, Javanese have always been open to outside influence, including in the field of architecture. They were masters of materials provided by the tropics; namely timber (particularly teak), bamboo, rattans, grasses and products from palm trees including coconut palms.
Chinese edit
East Java had easier access to the Java Sea and trading lanes to the north. With the trading boom from 13th to 16th centuries, Java became integrated into an emerging global trading network economy and adsorbed foreign influences. The Chinese for example had established a considerable presence by the 14th century who’s notable activities included the construction of Chinese-style homes of masonry with glazed roof tiles in exotic shapes, where previously domestic construction had been largely timber. The Chinese architectural influence would become one of the strongest throughout Java.
Temples edit
When the Javanese began to use stone for construction about 1200 years ago, reliefs carved into the stone showed buildings predominantly made of timber. Once the Javanese began to use stone they quickly mastered it use. The oldest known standing stone monuments are the Hindu shrines at Dieng Plateau. They are small and relatively plain, but stone architecture developed substantially in only a matter of decades resulting in masterpieces such as the Prambanan complex and Borobudur.[5] Borobudur is the world's largest Buddhist monument and was built without mortar between 770 and 800 CE. The Prambanan complex were consecrated in 856 CE at a time of Hindu revival on Java and show a skilful juxtaposition of vertical shapes in horizontal ranks.[6]
Majapahit edit
"Of all the buildings, none lack pillars, bearing fine carvings and coloured...there are elegant pavilions roofed with aren fibre, like the scene in a painting... The petals of the katangga were sprinkled over the roofs, for they had fallen in the wind. The roofs were like maidens with flowers arrange in their hair, delighting those who saw them."
—a description of the Majapahit capital in the Nagarakertagama by Mpu Prapanca[7]
Brick had been in use in classical Java, however, it was mastered by the island's architects of the 14th and 15th century Majapahit kingdom. Using a mortar of vine sap and palm sugar, Majapahit temples have a strong geometric quality. The many small horizontal lines provide a feeling of verticality.
Brick was used to build long walls, ramparts and gateways that enclosed compounds in the Majapahit capital. The city was dissected by canals and had a system of brick-lined reservoirs and , terracotta plumbing, that serviced bathing pavilions and water temples, and domestic and palace compounds.[8]
Archaeological evidence shows that houses in the the Majapahit capital were built on brick platforms. Within walled compounds were pavillions with roofs of aren, the black fibre of the sugar palm, which is still in use today on important Balinese buildings.[9]
The Majapahit Kingdom emerged in the late 13th century and during its Golden Age ruled the Indonesian archipelago for 150 years. The Nagarakertagama holy man Mpu Prapanca described the Majapahit’s great capital of pavilions set in walled compounds.
Evidence of the first use of load-bearing walls in domestic housing dates from this time. It is thought that it was due to changing religious beliefs and/or the rise of a merchant class outside the court.
Islam edit
Although Islam had first appeared in Java in the fourteenth century it was in the 16th and 17th centuries that it had first had significant influence on architecture although it was heavily influenced by the preceding Buddhism and Hinduism.
Dutch edit
Europeans established a prescence in the Pasisir port of Bantam with a number of fortified trading bases. The Dutch Verenidge Oost-Indische Compagnie ("Dutch East India Company", or VOC) became the dominant European prescence in the early seventeenth century. They established their capital in nearby Batavia - which was to become Jakarta - in 1619, and over the next two centuries expanded throughout Java.
Under the Napoleonic administrator Marshall Daendels the colony was managed with a new energy and new developments included a post road linking Batavia with Bandung and Surabaya.
With the arrival of a British army of occupation, Stamford Raffles ruled as Lieutenant-Governor from 1811 to 1816 but his land reforms and intense curiosity for Java resulted in an impact much greater than his short tenure.
In the early twentieth century the native population in districts of Surabaya and Semarang fell ill as result of Bubonic plague. The outbreak of what was considered a medieval disease in the "progressive" Ethical Policy era of the Dutch East Indies was a source of both outrage and embarrassment and was responded to by the regulations outlawing thatch and bamboo for houses as they were considered to harbour rats and other vermin. The government announced that city houses not built of masonry would be torn down.
Roof styles edit
Pyramidal roofs were largely reserved for holy buildings; predominantly mosques. Traditional Austronesian houses are dominated by large roof structures, of which there is much diversity of style. Within Indonesia, this diversity is not only seen between the wide variety of traditional styles between its ethnic groups, but also a wide variety of roof structures within the Javanese architectural tradition.
Basic elements edit
(p17) Basic principles of Javan house design include wooden and bamboo walls, double beam roof truss. Floors covered by split bamboo floor mats are highly effective solution in providing a smooth cool surface for sitting and standing.
usually only noble houses would feature a pendopo with a joglo roof and complete tumpang sari.[10]
Neoclassical edit
Neoclassical was an important influence of Java’s sense of design and proportion.
Indo-European House edit
Form is essentially Javanese with a verandah, characteristic roof shape and longitudinal organisation of space, but it uses European, notably Neoclassical elements.
Veranda edit
The veranda has always played an important role in Javanese life. Kraton’s pendopo and colonial business.
Senthong edit
Rice has a central place in Javanese culture that it is viewed as sacred with Dewi Sri the goddess of rice and fertility. The senthong is a small room in the innermost part of older Javanese homes shrine to her found in older Javanese homes.
There is
Varied roof shapes
Contempory Indonesian Architecture edit
Indonesian independence following World War II, had a significant impact for architecture in the country. There were increasingly fewer Dutch architects with few qualified Indonesian architects to take their place, a shortage of building materials hampered construction, staff members of the former Dutch public works department were asked to take over from Dutch architects, and clients commissioned construction companies as architects resulting in very conservative architecure.
The shortage of architects also saw a small number of civil engineering graduates engaged for architectural works. One such engineer was Sukarno, the country's first President. He had designed a mosque in Bengkulu and was a significant critic of building in Jakarta. A strident nationalist, his politics manifest in his view on the role of architecture in the new Republic. Western-style projects were purposefully built not so much as a conscious westernization, but rather to prove that modern Indonesia can do the same things the west can do. Among the projects he championed to demonstrate the capability and modernity of the new Indonesia were a clover leaf highway, four high rise hotels including the Hotel Indonesia, the Bung Karno Stadium and a broad by-pass in Jakarta, are among those projects that were approved by Soekarno to demonstrate the capability of Indonesia. One prime example, is the Indonesian parliament building. Designed by Suyudi, it has a large twin shell roof, reminiscent of Saarinen's TWA airport. Another architect praised by Sukarno was Frederich Silaban, a former officer of the Netherlands-Indie Department of Public Works.
His experience in this office is reflected in his statement: "What is Indonesian architecture? It is an architecture that emerged from utmost tropical climatic utilization. It is not a copy and imitation of indigenous form, so that we may mark our modernity."Ref.4 His Istiqlal State Mosque (the largest in South East Asia in the 1970s), and the head office of the Bank Indonesia, (Fig. 10) are the clearest demonstrations of his concepts. Not surprisingly, Le Corbusier's and Niemeyer's play of brise-soleil are distinguishing characteristics of Silaban's works.
During the 1950s, a distinctive architecture, known by Indonesians as 'jengki style' (after the word 'yankee' - the American armed forces) appeared. Johan Silas speculates that this distinctive architecture is an expression of the political spirit of freedom among the Indonesians.Ref.5 The spirit of freedom translated into an architecture that differs from what the Dutch had done. The modern cubic and strict geometric forms are transformed into more complicated volumes, such as pentagons or other irregular solids. Roofs are pitched, the surface and composition are festive. These characteristics are not commonly found elsewhere in Europe and America. More surprisingly, these distinctive forms are mostly designed by construction companies, or architecture students of Bandung Institute of Technology ( where the Department of Architecture was established in 1951). (Fig 11)
Fig. 11: A house in Jengki ('Yankee') style, Sarangan - East Java
As the copying of European and American modern architecture became the spirit of the age among newly independent nations of the third world, Indonesia saw that its architectural education was the primary vehicle to achieve it. Initially established under Dutch professors, in the mid 1950s they had to leave due to political difficulties between Indonesia and the Netherlands. For a short period some German professors managed the department, but by the end of the 1950s Americans, as well as Indonesian graduates from American universities, took over. Consequently, the graduates of ITB are most influenced by American architecture. Among those graduates who practice in Surabaya are the late Djelantik, Harjono Sigit, Johan Silas and Harry Winarno Kwari. (Fig 12) Their works represent the general stream of architectural style in the first half of the 1970s. Their designs mostly were inspired by Latin American architects and are characterized by the dominance of brise-soleil, strict geometry, and repetition of facade elements. Djelantik's administration building of the Surabaya Institute of Technology is directly comparable to the Unité d'Habitation of Le Corbusier. The first half of the1970s was clearly the heyday of the International Style. Conversations with the above mentioned architects shows that they refuse to be blamed for westernizing Indonesian architecture. "I am working in the modern spirit of architecture," is a typical reply. Here, we see that the term westernization is refused, or, is interchangeable with modernization.
Fig. 12: A Rice Mill Office, Sukorejo - East Java, designed by Harjono Sigit
Amidst the dominance of the International Style, a small number of architects attempted to redefine modern Indonesian architecture. Atelier 6, an architectural office based in Jakarta, not only designed a purely geometric abstract form for the National Hero Cemetery in Jakarta, but also designed a new vocabulary of indigenous form: a modernized indigenous form. The Governor's office of East Nusatenggara, the Indonesian pavilion for the 1970 Tokyo Exposition and the Said Naum Mosque, are examples of modernizing the indigenous. Are they inheriting the spirit of Maclaine Pont? They make no such claim. In the early 70s there was still little interest in the history of Indonesian architects like Pont, except for van Romondt, a Dutch professor of Bandung Institute of Technology (the architect's alma mater) who teaches the history of Indonesian architecture.
Toward mid-1970s the government made an important step in the debate of modern architecture in Indonesia. The first move by the government was building Taman Mini (Indonesia in Miniature) where more than twenty indigenous architectural forms were re-created. Some of them are real buildings disassembled from their original site and transported to Jakarta. Some buildings are exaggerated copies of indigenous forms. Here, every province is encouraged to boast their indigenous architectural richness, so at the end there are twenty six indigenous architectural forms representing the same number of provinces in Indonesia. The next move from the government was a call for Indonesian architects to design an Indonesian architecture, not merely to copy modern architecture in the West. Again, the government exemplified this call by adopting the design by FATA as national model. This design by FATA is a mosque for a petrochemical factory that modernizes the indigenous forms of javanese mosques (characterized by its three tiered pyramidal roof form). Hundreds of mosques, spread all over Indonesia (which is as large as the distance from Los Angeles to New York) have now become the formula of what is called "Modern Indonesian Architecture". Most public buildings financed by the government now appear with geometric forms for the body, and distinctive indigenous roof forms as their top. Unfortunately, most of them are not sensitive to composition so that the top and the body do not integrate to each other. (Fig 13) The 1980s is the era where this formula was widely practiced for public buildings.
Fig. 13: Provincial House of Representative of East Java, Surabaya. A traditional roof on top of modern style building
The beginning of the 1980s was also the beginning of a construction boom by the private sector. This private sector tends to be more sensitive than the government in dealing with architecture. To the private sector, the appearance of architecture is an integral part of the marketing strategy. The more luxurious the appearance, the more prestigious the company image is. This has become the prevailing philosophy of architecture. Competition among private companies accelerated during the previous decade, to the point where the use of a foreign architect is now becoming part of marketing strategy. (Fig 14) In the early nineties for example, it was not strange to find advertisements for an apartment that also included the photograph and name of the architect. Building 'modern' is no longer important; now the building must be designed by a foreign architect, no matter how bad their design is. Even projects that must definitely show indigenous form, such as tourist hotels in Bali, use indigenous forms but are designed by foreign architects.
The opportunity that foreign architects have to practice in Indonesia is in part due to the financing system of projects. Both in government projects and the private sector, if the financing is in part supported by foreign money, those foreign investors demand that the design be controlled by them. What makes the government project different from the private sectors is, among other things, the government project may require a partnership between foreign architects and an Indonesian architect. Expectedly, this partnership may resulted in transfer of knowledge. What is ironic is that it becomes a model for architectural practice in the nineties. Projects on the national or international level will have a foreign architect; projects at the provincial level will have 'foreign' architects, i.e. Jakarta's architects; and it goes on until at the very end, architects at the district level are unemployed. Although we may not underestimate the capacity of those foreign architects to develop a true "Indonesian" architecture, we surely believe that this task is ultimately obligatory for the Indonesians. The question is whether the situation conducive and supportive to a nation's cultural development. Indeed, the conflict between westernization and modernization in Indonesia does not simply involve architectural styles, but control over the building site, as well.
Fig 15a: Contemporary scene, Bank Pacific building, Surabaya Fig 15b: Contemporary scene, Architect's house, Jakarta REFERENCES
Ref.1: Ronald Gill (1990): `Corak Pembangunan dan Arsitektur Indo-Belanda di Indonesia' (Pattern of Indisch architecture in Indonesia); Konstruksi; vol.xiv, July 1990; p.16-22; Jakarta.
Ref.2: See Ben F.van leerdam (1995): Architect Henri Maclaine Pont: Een Speurtocht-naar-het-Wezenlijke van de Javaansche Architektuur (Architect Henri Maclaine Pont: an Intensive Search on the Essence of Javanese Architecture); dissertation; Technische Universiteit Delft.
Ref.3: For addresses and speeches during his presidency, his state addresses on August 17 each year are mostly available in cassette form. A two volume book entitled Di Bawah Bendera Revolusi (Under the Flags of Revolution) (n.d; n.p) is a collection of his writings and some of that state address.
Ref.4: Sri Astuti, et.al. (1991): Arsitek dan Karyanya: F.Silaban (Architect and his Works: F.Silaban); students' working paper; Bandung Institute of Technology; unpublished report.
Ref.5: personal discussion with Johan Silas, May 4, 1993.
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig 1: European style as seen in one of East Javanese bank Office in Surabaya (source: author's collection)
Fig 2: Grand Pavillion of Mangkunegara Palace, Surakarta. Notice the European pediment as the portico of this Pavillion (Source: Sidharta and Eko Budihardjo (1989):Konservasi Lingkungan dan Bangunan Kuno Bersejarah di Surakarta (Conservation of Historical Buildings and Environments of Surakarta); Gadjah Mada University Press; Yogyakarta)
Fig. 3: Indische Huis //(courtesy of Dr. ir.Ronald Gill M.Sc)**
Fig. 4: Mosque at Banda Aceh //(photo by Adilla; author's collection)**
Fig. 5a: Villa Isola, one exemplar of Art Deco Style of Bandung (source: Asri magazine for architecture and interior; nr. 101; aug.1991; p. 54)
Fig. 5b: Telecommunication Office, Surabaya (rendered in computer graphic by Design Priority, Despro ITS; courtesy of Despro ITS)
Fig. 6: Assembly Hall of Bandung Institute of Technology (source: Asri magazine for architecture and interior; nr. 101; aug.1991; p. 52)
Fig. 7: Mpu Tantular Museum, Surabaya (author's collection)
Fig. 8a: Javanese construction as applied for Open Pavillion. Location: Yogyakarta Palace (author's collection). //Both for Fig 8a and 8b, the outward appearance of the roof form is quite similar to Fig 3.**
Fig. 8b: European construction as applied for Open Pavillion. Location Mayor of Bandung's Residence //(photo by Sutrisno Murtiyoso, author's collection)**
Fig. 9a: Pohsarang Catholic Church, Kediri. Front elevation as photographed in the 1930s //(courtesy of Dr. ir. Ben F.van Leerdam)**
Fig. 9b: Pohsarang Catholic Church, Kediri. Perspective from the rear toward the front as photographed in the 1930s //(courtesy of Dr. ir. Ben F.van Leerdam)**
Fig. 10: Bank Indonesia Building, Jakarta (author's collection)
Fig. 11: A house in Yankee style, Sarangan - East Java (author's collection)
Fig. 12: A Rice Mill Office, Sukorejo - East Java, designed by Harjono Sigit (author's collection)
Fig. 13: Provincial House of Representative of East Java, Surabaya. A traditional roof on top of modern style building (architect: Purasuri Associates) (author's collection)
Fig. 14: Wisma Dharmala, Jakarta. Architect: Paul Rudolph (source: company's catalog)
Fig 15a: Contemporary scene, Bank Pacific building, Surabaya (author's collection)
Fig 15b: Contemporary scene, Architect's house, Jakarta (architect: Sardjono Sani). Recipient of 1993 IAI-Award (Institute of Indonesian architect) (Arsitektur Indonesia, newsletter of IAI; nr. 18; Oct-Dec 1995; p.13)
- ^ Schoppert (1997), p. 15
- ^ Schoppert (1997), p. 32
- ^ Schoppert (1997), p. 32
- ^ Schoppert (1997), p. 32
- ^ Schoppert (1997), p. 32
- ^ Schoppert (1997), p. 32
- ^ cited in Schoppert (1997), p. 33
- ^ Schoppert (1997), p. 34
- ^ Schoppert (1997), pp. 33-34
- ^ Schoppert, P., Damais, S., Java Style, 1997, Didier Millet, Paris, pp. 54, ISBN 962-593-232-1