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Portraits of The Apostle edit

Portraits of the Apostles
 
Leonardo da Vinci's The Last Supper, (1495-1498)
ApostlesSaint Peter, Saint Andrew, James the Great, John the Apostle, Philip the Apostle, Bartholomew the Apostle, Thomas the Apostle, Matthew the Apostle, James, son of Alphaeus, Saint Jude, Saint Simon, Judas Iscariot
Mediums of Potraitssculptures, sarcophagi, paintings, prints graffito, frescos, mosaics, illuminated manuscript, print making, holy cards, devotional medals
Associated ErasPaleochristian art, Byzantine Art, Medieval Art, High Renaissance, Baroque Art, Christian Art, Mannerism, Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation


 
Domenico Ghirlandaio's fresco in The Sistine Chapel, The Vocation of the Apostles (1481-1482).

Portraits of the Apostles are a common theme in Christian art and serve as a devotional tool for many Christian denominations.[1] The Twelve Apostles (also known as the Twelve Disciples) were instrumental in teaching the gospel of Jesus, “continuing the mission of Jesus”  with their depictions continuing to serve as spiritual inspiration and authority.[2][3] A minority of Christian sects reject religious imagery, including the veneration of the apostles and other religious figures.[4]

Early Christianity (31-476) edit

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Earliest depictions are mostly seen in this period through catacomb frescos, sarcophagi and icons, with significant Graeco-Roman pagan influence.[5] This was because it was mostly private worship in this period, before the adoption of Christianity in the Roman Empire by Constantine (306-337 AD), when works became more public.[6]

The period privileged symbolism, influenced from pagan prototypes, within the portraits scenes to convey religious meaning rather than beauty, as well as themes of martyrdom, traditio legis (handing over of the law/authority of Christ’s teachings), and traditio clavium (giving of the keys) with a specific focus on apostles Peter and Paulwith a specific focus on apostles Peter and Paul, as the ideal teaching figures in the transference of religious authority.[3] The remaining portraits of the Apostles are relatively limited, especially from the Apostolic Age (c. 27-100 AD) and the Ante-Nicene period (100-325). This is due to the lack of patronage and the privatisation of the worship of icons known as "graven images".[7]

The oldest known images of some of the apostles are in the catacombs of St Tecla in Rome, dated to the 4th century.[8] The frescos include Paul, Peter, John and Andrew, serving as a funerary devotional image, to protect the occupants of the tomb.[9]

One of the other earliest depictions is in the house church of Dura-Europos, in the baptistery room, from the 3rd or 4th century.[10] It depicts Jesus and Peter walking on water, heralding Christ’s power that viewers would hope to gain through "ritual initiation."[11]

The late antiquity (313-476 AD) after the Edict of Milan (313 AD) saw an increase in public portraiture of Paleochristian works focused on apostolic authority, due to Constantine’s decriminalisation of Christianity.

They were typically depicted in Church works that were more monumental or in sarcophagi during this period. This led to a rise in the cult of saints and apostles as “relics and martyr graves became political instruments.”[12]

Early Symbols edit

The anchor was a common symbol linked to Peter and Paul, symbolising hope and often found in the epitaphs of catacombs like St. Domitilla.[13] They were also seen with scrolls, Christograms and in an orans pose to establish their authority, sacrifice and connection with God.[14]

In the basilica of Saint Paul, the sarcophagus of the Anastasis displayed Peter’s arrest, with a ‘cross, two soldiers and a Christogram,’ symbolising his martyrdom in reference to both Peter and Paul. [15]

Later Periods (476-1750): edit

With the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Roman Catholic Church still prevailed and funded christian portraiture.

Byzantine Era (476-1430): edit

Constantinople's dedication as the new capital of the medieval Roman Empire became a christian artistic centre during this period.[16]

Byzantine art flourished in Constantinople.

Portraiture was mostly seen in public icons which privileged tesserae mosaic tiles, deep gold leaf inlays and highly dynamic colour.[17] Icons of the apostles were mostly painted on wood panels with encaustic or egg tempera, but were also carved in stone and ivory and fashioned from mosaics, metals, and enamels.[18] The portraits were highly stylised rather than earlier naturalistic ones, to display religious expression and veneration of the apostles.[19] Byzantine images were mostly seen in churches that favoured flattened figures with standardised facial types which created other worldly images of the apostles, rather than human ones.[20] Portraits in this period emphasised both narrative and symbolic art, to inspire faith of illiterate viewers.[21] This period incorporated more expressive depictions than previous Hellenistic renditions of the icon to encourage the viewer to ‘form a personal relationship to holy figures or by entering the narrative’.[22]

The Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople featured these mosaics of the apostles in narrative scenes.This included scenes of communion of the apostles and the doubting Thomas story.[23] One example is the Icon of Peter as a Saint in St. Catherine’s Monastery, Egypt dated to the 6th century.[24] The encaustic panel painting foregrounds Peter against his gold halo to display his divinity.[25] He is also holding a cross - symbolising his death and martyr status.[26]

Later, the period of Byzantine iconoclasm saw an imperial policy that destroyed and banned icons within the period between 726 and 843, standardising and restricting later depictions of icons.[27]

Renaissance (1400-1600): edit

During the Renaissance the Church sponsered apostolic portraits to make religion more accessible to the laity and those who could not read the scripture.[28] The ‘revival’ period had a focus on the humanistic, individuality of man.[29] This was reflected in the portraits elements and focus on anatomy, realism, linear perspective and chiaroscuro which made viewers feel more involved with the figures.[30]

Famous works of the apostles include Leonardo Da Vinci’s The Last Supper (c.1495-1498), The Four Apostles (1526) by Albrecht Dürer, Incredulity of Saint Thomas (c.1601-1602) by Caravaggio, and Self-Portrait as the Apostle Paul (1661) by Rembrandt. The Protestant reformation, which argued the tenant of ‘sola fide’ or ‘faith alone’ against icon worship, lead to the Protestant iconoclasm of the 16th century destroying portraiture.[31] The Catholic church responded by commissioning divine portraits less grandiose, and more contemplative.[32] In the counter-reformation the church often used trusted figures like the apostles to appeal to the masses, as seen in Bernardo Strozzi's Release of St. Peter (1635). Works incorporated stories of apostolic martyrdom to encourage viewers to return to catholicism.[33]

Modern Era: edit

Modern works often portray conventional religious scenes, with modern revaluations seen in art, film and fashion as there was a move towards secular society in the 19th century.[34]

In film, reinvention of portraits of the apostles like Peter are seen in the film Mary Magdalene (2018). Salvador Dalí's The Sacrament of the Last Supper (1955) portrays the apostles in an ethereal surrealist style, whilst incorporating Renaissance elements of mathematical ratios.[35] Other contemporary instillments of the apostles are often subversive and political. The Last Supper art exhibition in Brooklyn was created with "aims to fill the dearth of Black female voices at the metaphorical table."[36]

Modern portraitures have been appropriated into fashion, including Off-White's collaboration with the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago. The apparel included prints on hoodies and T-shirts of works like Caravaggio's Madonna of the Rosary, which features apostle Peter. The exclusive pieces were sold in the pop-up store "Church & State" during Off-White's Chief Executors officer Virgil Abloh's exhibition "Virgil Abloh: Figures of Speech." The pieces featuring the apostles reselling for up to $2000 AUD.[37]

























Practising Citations edit

The source draws on Pauls books, emphasising the importance of narrative art to inspire faith of illiterate viewers in creation of the church, explaining the style of early Christian depictions of the Apostles and religious scenes.[38]

  1. ^ Herbermann, Charles, ed. (1913). "Portraits of the Apostles" . Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company.
  2. ^ Rabali, Tshitangoni C. (2020-07-13). "Bible reading insights from how the gospels and Acts link the apostles to Jesus: A biblical theological exploration". In die Skriflig / In Luce Verbi. 54 (2). doi:10.4102/ids.v54i2.2593. ISSN 2305-0853.
  3. ^ a b The Apostles in Early Christian Art and Poetry. Roald Dijkstra. Boston. 2016. pp. 377–379. ISBN 978-90-04-30974-6. OCLC 934280118.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) CS1 maint: others (link)
  4. ^ Noyes, James, ed. (2013). The Politics of Iconoclasm. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85773-431-0.
  5. ^ Jensen, Robin M. (2000). "Art". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. London: Taylor & Francis Group. p. 750. ISBN 9780203778869.
  6. ^ "Early Christian art". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-05-25.
  7. ^ 1941-, Spier, Jeffrey. Kessler, Herbert L., (2009). Picturing the Bible : the earliest Christian art. Yale University Press. p. 2. ISBN 978-0-300-14934-0. OCLC 255901295. {{cite book}}: |last= has numeric name (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  8. ^ "Pictures: Oldest Apostle Images Revealed by Laser". History. 2010-06-26. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  9. ^ "Pictures: Oldest Apostle Images Revealed by Laser". History. 2010-06-26. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  10. ^ Peppard, Michael (2016), "Dura-Europos and the World's Oldest Church", The World's Oldest Church, Bible, Art, and Ritual at Dura-Europos, Syria, Yale University Press, pp. 5–45, ISBN 978-0-300-21399-7, retrieved 2021-06-06
  11. ^ Peppard, Michael (2016), "Dura-Europos and the World's Oldest Church", The World's Oldest Church, Bible, Art, and Ritual at Dura-Europos, Syria, Yale University Press, p. 41, ISBN 978-0-300-21399-7, retrieved 2021-06-06
  12. ^ Dijkstra, Roald (2016). The Apostles in Early Christian Art and Poetry. Netherlands: BRILL. p. 7. doi:10.1163/9789004309746. ISBN 978-90-04-29804-0. OCLC 952059225.
  13. ^ Kennedy, Charles A. (1975). "Early Christians and the Anchor". The Biblical Archaeologist. 38 (3–4): 119. doi:10.2307/3209591. ISSN 0006-0895.
  14. ^ Dijkstra, Roald (2016). The Apostles in Early Christian Art and Poetry. Netherlands: BRILL. p. 378. doi:10.1163/9789004309746. ISBN 978-90-04-29804-0. OCLC 952059225.
  15. ^ Dijkstra, Roald (2016). The apostles in early christian art and poetry. Netherlands: BRILL. p. 364. doi:10.1163/9789004309746. ISBN 978-90-04-30974-6. OCLC 952059225.
  16. ^ Bogdanović, Jelena (2016). "The Relational Spiritual Geopolitics of Constantinople, the Capital of the Byzantine Empire". Political Landscapes of Capital Cities. Boulder, Colorado: University Press of Colorado. p. 97. ISBN 9781607324690.
  17. ^ "Byzantine art | Characteristics, History, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-06-07.
  18. ^ Freeman, Evan. "Icons, an introduction". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2021-06-03.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  19. ^ Hurst, Ellen. "Beginner's guide to Byzantine art & mosaics". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2021-06-03.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  20. ^ "Byzantine art | Characteristics, History, & Facts". Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 2021-06-03.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  21. ^ Wharton-Epstein, Ann (2004). "The Rebuilding and Redecoration of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople: A Reconsideration". Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 23: 91.
  22. ^ "Private Devotion in Medieval Christianity". www.metmuseum.org. 2001. Retrieved 2021-06-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  23. ^ Wharton-Epstein, Ann (2004). "The Rebuilding and Redecoration of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople: A Reconsideration". Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 23: 85.
  24. ^ Bayet, Charles (2009). Byzantine art. Anne Haugen, Jessica Wagner. New York, USA: Parkstone International. p. 29. ISBN 978-1-78042-797-3. OCLC 777400294.
  25. ^ Bayet, Charles (2009). Byzantine art. Parkstone International. pp. 31g. ISBN 978-1-78042-797-3. OCLC 955645559.
  26. ^ Freeman, Evan. "Icons, an introduction". Khan Academy. Retrieved 2021-06-04.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  27. ^ Brooks, Sarah (August 2009). "Icons and Iconoclasm in Byzantium". www.metmuseum.org. Retrieved 2021-06-03.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  28. ^ "RELIGIOUS ART throughout THE RENAISSANCE". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  29. ^ "RELIGIOUS ART throughout THE RENAISSANCE". Google Arts & Culture. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  30. ^ The art of Renaissance Europe : a resource for educators. Bosiljka Raditsa, Alexandra Bonfante-Warren, Metropolitan Museum of Art. New York: Metropolitan Museum of Art. 2000. pp. 9–15. ISBN 0-87099-953-2. OCLC 43790882.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link)
  31. ^ Heal, Bridget (2017). "Introduction: Art and Religious Reform in Early Modern Europe". Art History. 40 (2): 248. doi:10.1111/1467-8365.12305. ISSN 1467-8365.
  32. ^ Heal, Bridget (2017). "Introduction: Art and Religious Reform in Early Modern Europe". Art History. 40 (2): 248. doi:10.1111/1467-8365.12305. ISSN 1467-8365.
  33. ^ Freedberg, David (1976). "The Representation of Martyrdoms during The Early Counter-Reformation in Antwerp". The Burlington Magazine. 118 (876): 136. ISSN 0007-6287.
  34. ^ author., Deacy, Christopher,. Faith in film : religious themes in contemporary cinema. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-7546-5158-1. OCLC 1050439123. {{cite book}}: |last= has generic name (help)CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  35. ^ "Revealed: the scientific principles behind Dalí's surrealist eccentricity". the Guardian. 2021-02-21. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  36. ^ "Art Exhibition Elevating Voices of Black Women on Show in Brooklyn". BK Reader. 2021-03-04. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  37. ^ "Off-White Caravaggio t shirt". Grailed. Retrieved 2021-06-06.
  38. ^ Wharton-Epstein, Ann (2004). "The Rebuilding and Redecoration of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople: A Reconsideration". Greek, Roman and Byzantine Studies. 23(1): 79–92 – via Duke University.
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