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The Soviet Ark
The Soviet Ark
USAT Buford on December 21, 1919
History
UK
NameSS Mississippi
OwnerAtlantic Transport Company Ltd. of London
BuilderHarland and Wolff, Belfast, Ireland
Yard number231
Laid down1890
LaunchedAugust 29, 1890
Maiden voyageOctober 28, 1890
HomeportLondon
Identification98173 (British Board of Trade)
FateSold to the U.S. Army Quartermaster Department on June 24, 1898 for troop and cargo transport in Spanish-American War.
NotesThe Atlantic Transport Company was owned by Bernard N. Baker, an American, and his Baltimore Storage and Lighterage Company, but was operated out of London. In 1898, Baker set up the Atlantic Transport Company of West Virginia to assert American ownership of his British assets and facilitate the legal sale of some of his ships to the US government.
History
US
NameUSAT Buford
NamesakeGen. John T. Buford
OwnerUnited States Army
Cost$350,000
AcquiredJune 24, 1898
RefitRefitted at Newport News, Virginia in 1900
IdentificationSS-3818
FateSold to the Alaskan-Siberian Navigation Company in 1923
NotesThe refitting by the Newport News Ship-building and Dry Dock Company in 1900, under a $397,000 contract, reduced the Buford's original four masts to two tall masts, along with other changes. Capacity: 40 officers, 800 men and 800 horses; her capability for refrigeration of meat was particularly prized because beef was considered an essential element of the military diet.
History
US
NameSS Buford
OwnerAlaskan-Siberian Navigation Company
Acquired1923
HomeportSan Francisco
FateSold for $70,000 as scrap to Hasegawa Gentaro of Yokohama, Japan in 1929.
General characteristics
Class and typeCombination passenger cargo vessel
TypeSchooner
Tonnagelist error: <br /> list (help)
3,732 GT
3,473 tons under deck
2,388 NT
Displacement8,583 tons of displacement
Length370 ft 8 in (112.98 m)
Beam44 ft 2 in (13.46 m)
Depth26 ft 6 in (8.08 m)
Depth of hold30 ft 6 in (9.30 m)
Decks4
Installed powerlist error: <br /> list (help)
2,300 indicated horsepower (ihp);
375 nominal horsepower (nhp)
Propulsionlist error: <br /> list (help)
Triple expansion engine with 3 cylinders
25 1/2, 42 & 70 inches diameter respectively
Speed12 1/4 knots (22.7 km/h; 14.1 mph)
Complement125 men
NotesOfficial British Board of Trade Number: 98173, steel single screw, 4 masts schooner (originally); 4 decks; 3 tiers of beams; 7 cemented bulkheads; fitted with electric light; cellular double bottom 312 feet, 718 tons; forward peak tank 44 tons; aft peak tank 50 tons. Tonnage: 3,732 tons gross, 3,473 under deck and 2,388 net. Holds 30.6 feet deep; poop 78 feet; bridge 116 feet; forecastle 40 feet. Triple expansion engine with 3 cylinders of 25 1/2", 42", and 70" diameter respectively; stroke 51"; 2,300 indicated horsepower (ihp); 375 nominal horsepower (nhp); 2 double-ended boilers; 12 ribbed furnaces; grate surface 192 sq. ft.; heating surface 6,162 sq. ft.; coal consumption 31 tons per day; engine by the builders. Speed 12 1/4 knots. Port of registry: London (originally). Sister ship: Michigan (USAT Kilpatrick).

Departure

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Leading Personnages on The Buford's Passenger-List
Emma Goldman, Ethel Bernstein, Peter Bianki, Alexander Berkman

The Buford steamed out of New York harbor at 6 A. M. on Sunday, December 21, 1919, with 249 "undesirables" on board. Of those, 199 had been seized in the November 7th Palmer Raids. Some were leftists or anarchists, though perhaps as many as 180 were deported because of their membership in the Union of Russian Workers, formerly radical group that had devolved into a social club for Russian language speakers, but which had been the principle target of the raids.[1] Other deportees, including the well-know radical leaders Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman, had been detained earlier. All, by act or speech or membership in an organization, fell within the legal definition of anarchist under the Immigration Act of 1918, which did not distinguish between "malignant conspirators and destructive revolutionists" on the one hand or "apostles of peace, preachers of the principle of non-resistance" on the other. All met the law's requirement in that they "believed that no government would be better for human society than any kind of government."[2] Goldman had been convicted in 1893 of "inciting to riot" and in 1917 for interfering with military recruitment. She had been arrested on many other occasions.[3] Berkman had served 14 years in prison for the attempted assassination of industrialist Henry Clay Frick after the Homestead Steel Strike in 1892. In 1917 he had been convicted alongside Goldman for the same anti-draft activities.[4] The notoriety of Goldman and Berkman as convicted agitators allowed the press and public to imagine that all the deportees had similar backgrounds. The New York Times called them all "Russian Reds."[5]

Not all the deportees were unhappy to be leaving the United States. Most were single, few were being separated from their families, and some anticipated a brighter future in the new Soviet Russia.[1]

The United States had purchased the Buford in 1898 from the Atlantic Transport Line[6] for use during the Spanish-American War. Its original name was the Mississippi.[7] The U.S. War Department used it as a transport ship in the Spanish-American War and in World War I and loaned it to the Department of Labor for the deportation mission.[8]

 
"THE SOVIET ARK"
The United States army transport Buford, carrying 249 "Reds"
as America's Christmas present to Lenin and Trotzky.

Twenty-four hours after its departure, the Buford's captain opened sealed orders to learn his projected destination. The captain only learned his final destination while in Kiel harbor while awaiting repairs and taking on a German pilot to guide the ship through the North Sea minefields,[9]. The State Department had found it difficult to make arrangements to land in Latvia as originally planned. Though finally chosen, Finland was not an obvious choice, since Finland and Russia were then at war.[10]

F.W. Berkshire, Supervising Inspector of Immigration, made the journey to oversee the enterprise and, in contrast to his two most famous charges, reported little conflict. A "strong detachment of marines" numbering 58 enlisted men and four officers also made the journey and pistols had been distributed to the crew.[7][11]

In chapter 1 of "My Disillusionment in Russia," Emma Goldman wrote of the Buford voyage:[12]

For twenty-eight days we were prisoners. Sentries at our cabin doors day and night, sentries on deck during the hour we were daily permitted to breathe the fresh air. Our men comrades were cooped up in dark, damp quarters, wretchedly fed, all of us in complete ignorance of the direction we were to take.

Alexander Berkman, in his piece "The Russian Tragedy," [13] added,

We were prisoners, treated with military severity, and the Buford a leaky old tub repeatedly endangering our lives during the month's Odyssey... Long, long was the voyage, shameful the conditions we were forced to endure: crowded below deck, living in constant wetness and foul air, fed on the poorest rations.

The Buford reached Hango, Finland at 4:25 pm on Friday, January 16, 1920. The prisoners were kept between decks until they were landed the next day, Saturday, January 17, 1920, at 2 pm. They were taken off the transport and marched between a cordon of American marines and Finnish White Guards to the special train that was to take them to Terijoki, Finland, about two miles from the frontier.[14][15] The 249 "undesirable aliens" were placed, 30 to a car,

in [unheated] box cars fitted up with plank benches, tables and beds. Each car contained seven boxes of army rations. The supplies include bully-beef, sugar and hard bread." [16]

Finnish White Guards were stationed on each car platform. The party was to be completely isolated until it reached its destination. Once loaded, the train was then held overnight while rumors of the party being killed as they crossed the border caused a diplomatic flurry.[16]

The journey began the next day, January 18, but the exiles were sidetracked at Viborg, Finland, remaining confined in their cars, while awaiting the British Prisoners' Relief Mission, which was to cross the Russian frontier at the same time. Delayed by storms, the Buford began her return voyage that same day.[16]

On January 19, the trek continued to Terijoki. Once the deportees had arrived, and after trudging through a heavy snow storm, a parlay was conducted under white flags of truce between Berkman, guarded by the Finns, and the Russians, out on the ice of the frozen Systerbak River, which separated the Finnish and Bolshevist lines. Things being settled, the "undesirables" then crossed over into Russia at 2 pm, Berkman and Goldman waiting until everyone else had safely crossed.[17] All were enthusiastically received with cheers and a band playing the Russian national anthem. In the war-wrecked town of Bielo-Ostrov, which overlooked the stream, they boarded a waiting train which took them to Petrograd.[18]

Most of the press approved enthusiastically the Buford experiment. The Cleveland Plain Dealer wrote: "It is hoped and expected that other vessels, larger, more commodious, carrying similar cargoes, will follow in her wake."[19]

Ship's history

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The ship had begun life as the S.S. Mississippi[6], constructed by Harland & Wolff of Belfast, Ireland for Bernard N. Baker of Baltimore and the Atlantic Transport Line. She was launch on August 29, 1890[20] and began her maiden voyage from London on October 28, 1890. In command was her first captain, Hamilton Murrell,[21] "Hero of the Danmark Disaster," who a year earlier had saved 735 lives from the sinking Danish passenger ship Danmark, the largest single rescue at the time.[22]

For the first year of her career, the Mississippi plied the waters between London, Swansea, Philadelphia and Baltimore.[23]

In January, 1892, the Mississippi was moved to the London-New York route,[20] where she remained until she was purchased by the U.S. Army Quartermaster Department as part of a seven ship deal on June 24, 1898 and became an army transport ship, serving in the Spanish American War.[24] The Mississippi was assigned the number "25" on July 5, 1898.[25] However, she sailed under her given name until March 2, 1899, the following year, when she was officially renamed the U.S.A.T. Buford,[26] in honor of Gen. John T. Buford, the Union cavalry officer and hero of the Battle of Gettysburg of the American Civil War.

On May 28, 1900,[27] The Buford entered the naval yards of the Newport News Ship-Building Company for a major refitting as a troop-ship for service between the United States and the Philippines.[28] Two of her original four masts were removed.[6] Once back in service, the Buford regularly sailed from San Francisco to Honolulu and Guam terminating in Manila, and returning via Nagasaki and Honolulu.[29]

At 5:12 a.m. on Wednesday, April 18, 1906, the Buford was in San Francisco when the Great Quake of 1906 struck. She was taken from the pier into the bay to avoid the resultant fire and was one of three transports - the Buford, Crook and Warren - used in the harbor as temporary storehouses for the supplies coming into the stricken city by sea in the weeks following the disaster.[30][31]

In 1907[32] and 1911[33], the Buford was involved in famine relief missions to China. In 1912-1916, she was involved in refugee and troop missions during the Mexican Revolution.[6] The Buford was in Galveston harbor when a massive hurricane hit on August 17, 1915 and was the city's sole line of communication to the outside world through her radio.[34]

With the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the Buford continued her refugee rescue work, bringing away Americans who wished to flee the European fighting.[35] She supported of the American war effort once the U.S. entered the conflict.[36]

In December 1918, the Buford underwent another refit to prepare her for transporting American Expeditionary Force troops home from the war. [37] On January 14, 1919 she was transferred to the U.S. Navy, commissioned the USS Buford (ID 3818) the next day, and assigned to troop transport duty. During the next half-year she made four round trip voyages between the United States and France, bringing home over 4700 soldiers. She made one more voyage to the Panama Canal Zone before she was decommissioned by the Navy on September 2, 1919 and returned to the Army Transport Service.[6][38]

The Buford's most notorious incarnation followed a few months later when she was turned into the "Soviet Ark" (or "Red Ark"). On December 21,1919, she was used to deport 249 political radicals and other "undesirable" aliens, among them the fiery anarchists Emma Goldman and Alexander Berkman, to the Russian SFSR.[7] This occurred between the first and second Palmer Raids of the first "Red Scare" period in the U.S. After delivering her charges, the Buford returned to New York on February 22, 1920.[39]

On Aug. 5, 1920, the Buford returned the ashes of Puerto Rican patriot Dr. Ramon Emerterio Betances to San Juan.

On May 2, 1921, once again in the Pacific, the Buford rescued sixty-five passengers and crew from the inferno of the Japanese steam freighter Tokuyo Maru, which had caught fire and burned 60 miles southwest of the mouth of the Columbia River, off Tillamook Head, Oregon.[40]

In mid 1922, as one of her final duties as a U. S. transport, the Buford conducted an inspection tour of Northwestern and Alaska Army posts and closed a number of posts in the territory abandoned by the War Department.[41]

In 1923, the Buford was sold to John C. Ogden and Fred Linderman of the San Francisco-based Alaskan Siberian Navigation Company.[6] After a voyage to Alaska in the latter half of 1923 and another to the South Seas in early 1924, the Buford was chartered for three months by silent movie comedian Buster Keaton for use as the principal set of his film "The Navigator."[42] The Buford had been "discovered" by Keaton's Technical Director Fred Gabourie while scouting for ships for another, outside project, The Sea Hawk. Released on October 13, 1924, "The Navigator" proved to be Keaton's most financially successful film and one of his personal favorites. After this moment in the limelight, the Buford slipped into dormancy and would occasionally reappear at the center of several financially dubious schemes.

On February 25, 1929[43], it was reported that the Buford would be scrapped in Yokohama, Japan by Hasegawa Gentaro. She sailed from Los Angeles on May 11, 1929, flying the American flag under the command of Capt. A. G. Laur to meet her final fate.[44]


References

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  1. ^ a b Charles H. McCormick, Seeing Reds: Federal Surveillance of Radicals in the Pittsburgh Mill District, 1917-1921 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1997), 158-63. Older histories note that some of those deported left a wife or family behind, but McCormick's more current research demonstrates that such cases were rare. See Post, 5-6
  2. ^ Post, Louis F. (1923), The Deportations Delirium of Nineteen-twenty: A Personal Narrative of an Historic Official Experience, Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Company, ISBN 0306718820, retrieved January 11, 2010, p.14-16.
  3. ^ Post, 12-16
  4. ^ Post, 19-20
  5. ^ New York Times: "Hundreds of Reds on Soviet 'Ark' Sail Soon for Europe," December 13, 1919, accessed February 1, 2010
  6. ^ a b c d e f S.S. Mississippi (I) Atlantic Transport Line, accessed March 20, 2010 Cite error: The named reference "ATL" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
  7. ^ a b c New York Times: "'Ark' with 300 Reds Sails Early Today for Unnamed Port," December 21, 1919, accessed February 1, 2010
  8. ^ Post, 3
  9. ^ Post, 6-11
  10. ^ Post, 3, 10-1
  11. ^ Post, 4
  12. ^ My Disillusionment in Russia by Emma Goldman (1923). Accessed January 1, 2010
  13. ^ The Russian Tragedy by Alexander Berkman (1922). Accessed January 1, 2010
  14. ^ The Bolshevik Myth: Chapter One - The Log of the transport "Buford" by Alexander Berkman (1925). Anarchy Archives, accessed January 3, 2010
  15. ^ New York Times: "Soviet Ark Lands its Reds in Finland," January 18, 1920, accessed February 1, 2010
  16. ^ a b c New York Times: "Reds Reach Viborg; Border Fire Halts," January 19, 1920, p.15, accessed January 1, 2010
  17. ^ New York Times: "Deportees Cross Soviet Frontier, But May Not Stay," January 20, 1920, p.1, accessed January 1, 2010
  18. ^ New York Times: "Bolsheviki Admit All Reds," January 21, 1920, p.17, accessed January 1, 2010
  19. ^ Murray, Robert K. (1955), Red Scare: A Study in National Hysteria, 1919-1920, Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, ISBN 0816658331, p.208-9.
  20. ^ a b Bonsor, Noel R. P. (1955), North Atlantic Seaway, vol.3, Jersey, Channel Islands: Brookside Publications, ISBN 0905824008, p.1087.
  21. ^ The Baltimore Sun, "Port Paragraphs," Aug 30, 1890, pg. 6
  22. ^ The Baltimore Sun, "President Baker's Approval," Apr 23, 1889, pg. 1
  23. ^ The Baltimore Sun, "Port Paragraphs," Nov 28, 1890, pg. 4
  24. ^ New York Times: "Transports For The Army," June 25, 1898, p.2, accessed January 1, 2010
  25. ^ The Baltimore Sun, "Rushing Troops South," Jul 6, 1898, pg. 1
  26. ^ The Baltimore Sun, "New Names For Auxiliary Ships," Mar 3, 1899, pg. 2
  27. ^ The Baltimore Sun, "Battleship Kentucky," May 29, 1900, pg. 7
  28. ^ Richmond Dispatch: "Contract for Newport News," May 25, 1900, p.1, accessed January 1, 2010
  29. ^ Annual Reports of the War Department, Vol II, 1906: "Regular Trans-Pacific Service" p.28, accessed January 1, 2010
  30. ^ Annual Reports of the War Department, Vol I, 1906: "EARTHQUAKE IN CALIFORNIA" - Special Report of Maj. Gen. Adolphus W. Greely, Commanding the Pacific Division, p.114, accessed January 1, 2010
  31. ^ Annual Reports of the War Department, Vol I, 1906: "REPORTS OF SUBORDINATE OFFICERS - Reports of Maj. Carroll A. Devol, Quartermaster, U. S. A." p. 186-7, accessed January 1, 2010
  32. ^ The Baltimore Sun, "Sails To Relieve Starving Chinese," May 1, 1907, pg. 10
  33. ^ The Baltimore Sun, "B. and O. Offers Its Aid," Feb 17, 1911, pg. 5
  34. ^ The Baltimore Sun, "Texas Storm Sweeps Inland," Aug 18, 1915, pg. 1
  35. ^ New York Times: "Transport For Refugees," Aug 25, 1914, pg. 5], accessed January 1, 2010
  36. ^ U.S. Army Ships--USAT Buford (1898)Department of the Navy -- Naval History and Heritage Command, accessed January 1, 2010
  37. ^ Crowell, Benedict; Wilson, Robert Forrest (1921), Demobilization: Our Industrial and Military Demobilization after the Armistice, 1918-1919, New Haven: Yale University Press, ISBN 0559189133, retrieved January 11, 2010, p. 35.
  38. ^ NavSource Online - Section Patrol Craft Photo Archive: "USAT Buford - ex-USS Buford (ID 3818) - ex-USAT Buford", accessed January 1, 2010
  39. ^ New York Times: "'Soviet Ark' Returns: Buford Can Be Ready for Another Load of Reds by Wednesday" February 23, 1920, p. 8, accessed January 1, 2010
  40. ^ Los Angeles Times, "One Dead, Seven Missing: Army Transport Rescues Sixty-five From Burning Jap Steamer," May 4, 1921, pg. I-5
  41. ^ Los Angeles Times, "Maj.-Gen. Morton Sails For Alaska," Jun 28, 1922, pg. I-15
  42. ^ Los Angeles Times, "Deep Sea Comedy," May 11, 1924, pg. 23
  43. ^ Los Angeles Times, "Former Transport Buford Reported Sold," February 25, 1929, pg. 6
  44. ^ Los Angeles Times, "Old Transport To Sail On Last Voyage," May 10, 1929, pg. A-12
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