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Farmworkers in California edit

California is the number one agricultural producing state in the United States of America with an estimated 787,000 hired farm workers, 56% of whom are crop farmworkers[1].

History edit

 
Flag of the North American Free Trade Agreement

North American Free Trade Agreement edit

See also: North American Free Trade Agreement

Since the passing of the North American Free Trade Agreement in 1993,[2] there have been a large northward migration of Mexican farm workers.[3]This is often said to be due to the effects on Mexican corn farmers[4].

Current President Donald Trump has criticized NAFTA as "the single worst trade deal approved in [the United States]"[5].

Environmental Impact of NAFTA edit

NAFTA has led to an increased use of pesticides and environmental policy was often neglected[6].Free trade resulted in pressures on the environment, requiring regulation and protection. NAFTA has increased air and water pollution in Canada, the United States, and Mexico[7].

Agricultural Job Opportunity, Benefits, and Security Act edit

 
Characteristics of the 108th Congress.

Introduced to sentate in 2003, the 108th congress, the Agricultural Job Opportunity, Benefits, and Security Act of 2003 (AgJOBS) allows for qualifying alien farmworkers’ adjustment to legal status, but not to alien farmworkers already working in the United States without legal status.[8] The AgJOBS Act of 2005, introduced in the first session of the 109th Congress, reforms AgJOBS to include adjustment to legal status[8]. The bill stated that migrant farmworkers already in the U.S illegally could apply for adjustment to legal status[9]. After adjustment, “worker could apply for legal resident status[9].” Minor children and spouses would also be protected from deportation[9].

United Farm Workers edit

See also: United Farm Workers

The United Farm Workers, officially formed in August of 1966, was a merger organization that combined the Agricultural Workers Organizing Committee and the National Farm Workers Association, initiated after the Delano Grape Strike[10].

Environmental Aspects of UFW. edit

The UFW worked to increase pesticide regulation. One of the leading causes of farmworker deaths was due to toxic chemicals in pesticides[11].

The UFW grape boycott was the start of addressing pesticide exposure and attributing farmworkers' deaths to hazardous pesticides[12]. Starting 1969, The United Farm Workers began to focus their efforts on pesticide health threat to both farmworkers and consumers as a means to draw support from the public and restrict pesticide use in California.[13] The UFW partnered with the Evironmental Defense Fund (EDF) and was represented by the EDF when working to ban the use of DDT[13]. By 1969, the EDF partnered with local environmental groups to prohibit DDT in 3 states[12]. In the protests against hazardous pesticides, the UFW struggled to gain support from larger-scale environmental groups during the boycott of California lettuce and grapes[13].

By 1970, the UFW's boycott led to the start of pesticide regulation[12]. By June of that year, California farm owners began to sign union contracts with the UFW, allowing for the monitering and regulation of dangerous pesticides, including DDT[13].

Demographics edit

Currently, over 90% of farmworkers are Hispanic/Latino.[14]

 
MEXICAN GREEN CARD FARMWORKER, JUGO OLIVAS, AND HIS WIFE CROSS BORDER AT CALEXICO TO SHOP IN AMERICAN STORES.

History of Farmworkers in the U.S. edit

Farmworkers across the United States have, since the 1600s, consisted primarily of people of color including African American slaves, Asian immigrants, and now Mexican migrant and immigrant workers.[15]

Immigration Act of 1924 edit
See also: Immigration Act of 1924

The Immigration Act of 1924 was created in order to stop Asian migration and immigration into the United States. The act prohibited several Asian countries from immigrating to the United States including: Japan, China, Philippines, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia, Singapore, Korea, Indonesia, Myanmar, India, Sri Lanka, and Malaysia. This created a need for more agricultural workers, which began the increased immigration of Mexicans.[16]

Bracero Program edit

See also: Bracero Program

The Bracero Program was initiated in 1942 between the United States and Mexico. During World War II, there was an enormous decrease in labor, which needed to be compensated for. This program gave temporary citizenship to Mexican agricultural workers in order to make up for the loss of labor force because of the war. Originally, the program was supposed to be terminated after the war ended; however, it ended in 1964, 19 years after World War II ended.[17] Although the program ended. It created a large demand within the United States for fresh produce, which was unable to be met without migrant and immigrant labor.[18] The Bracero Program was over, but the number of Mexican immigrants did not stop coming into the United States, but this time it was illegally.

Mexican Farmworkers in the U.S. edit

After the Texas annexation, Mexicans were leaving what was now the United States and returning to Mexico in large numbers and the immigration of Mexicans was extremely low in the United States.[19] After the Mexican Revolution (1910-1920), Mexican immigration went up increasingly with refugees fleeing Mexico to escape the violence in their country. Around this time the Immigration Act of 1924, which all Latin countries were exempt from, created a demand for cheap agricultural labor that Mexican migrant workers were able to fulfill. Although during the Great Depression in the 1930s, the demand for agricultural workers began to drop, as people were eating much less fresh produce and meat.[20] The Bracero Program was introduced in order to meet the demands for agricultural workers in the United States.

H-2A Visas edit

See also: H-2A Visa

This visa is still in action and allows seasonal agricultural workers to come to the United States and work on farms. In 2015, there were about 140,000 Mexican workers coming in through this visa.[21] However, many farmers point out that the application process for this visa is costly and lengthly and many do not even attempt to use it. They must prove somehow that they are unable to find workers from the United States. Craig Regelbrugge, an Agriculture Coalition for Immigration Reform co-chairman stated that, "farmers who are eligible to use it often see it as a last resort".[22] Currently the visa only holds about 3% of agricultural workers in the U.S.

Undocumented Farmworkers edit

Although the H-2A visa is a legal way for many migrant workers to find agricultural work in the United States, as stated above, many farmers do not use it until absolutely necessary and it is easier for farmers to find undocumented Mexican workers for their farms.[23] As of now, the rate of undocumented farmworkers in the United States is estimated to be about 65%[24] and 59% of undocumented farmworkers in the United States enterered over 10 years ago.[25]

Current Administration edit

Many farmers fear that they will lose their current workers under the new Donald Trump administration. His policies are strict in regards to eliminating illegal immigration with his proposed 1.4 billion dollar wall on the border of U.S. and Mexico.[26] Because the majority of farmworkers in the United States are undocumented Mexicans, farmers are fearing that they will no longer have enough workers to support their farms, as it is estimated undocumented workers, who consist of 65-70% of the agricultural force, bring a revenue of $35 billion dollars a year and provide food for the entire nation.[27]

Environmental Protection Agency edit

 
Logo of the Environmental Protection Agency

United States Environmental Protection Agency edit

See Also: United States Environmental Protection Agency

The United States Environmental Protection Agency was established on December 2, 1970 under President Richard Nixon.  The EPA’s mission is to protect human health by safeguarding air, water, drink land, thus working towards a cleaner, healthier environment for the American people.  The EPA is a consolidation of federal research, monitoring and enforcement activities, and standard-setting to ensure environmental protection. [28]

The EPA receives its authority to register pesticides under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) and establishes tolerances (maximum legally permissible levels) for pesticide residues in food under the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA).[29]

Trump Administration

President Trump does not have the authority to abolish EPA by executive order, this can only be done through new legislation enacted by Congress. [30] President Trump can, however, change the EPA through his political appointments.

On Friday, February 17, the Senate confirmed Scott Pruitt as the EPA's 14th administrator. Scott Pruitt is a seasoned legal opponent of the agency. [31]

The EPA's agenda has begun to develop under the direction of President Trump and the Pruitt administration. Early March 2017, President Trump signed an executive order directing Mr. Pruitt to being the legal process of dismantling Obama-era federal regulations over rivers, streams and wetlands in order to prevent water pollution. Mr. Pruitt also ordered the EPA to regress their program on collecting data on methane emissions from oil and gas wells. [32]

The Trump administration has proposed cuts to the Environmental Protection Agency budget, seeking to shrink spending by 31 percent, to $5.7 billion from $8.1 billion, it's lowest level in 40 years[33], and eliminating 3,200 positions, or more than 20 percent of the agency’s 15,000 jobs.[34][35]

 
President Donald Trump and EPA chief, Scott Pruitt

These cuts will drastically reduce EPA environmental enforcement and eliminate more than 50 EPA programs. [36]

On Monday, April 24, 2017, it was reported that President Trump would be shutting down the EPA's Open Data Web service and is likely to remove its funding. The site will not be in operation from Friday, April 28th. The Open Data Web stores information on climate change, life cycle assessment, health impact analysis and environmental justice. [37]

 
Logo of the California Environmental Protection Agency

California Environmental Protection Agency edit

See also: California Environmental Protection Agency

Established formally in 1991, the California Environmental Protection Agency is an agency dedicated to restoring, protecting and enhancing the environment. [38]

The Office of the Secretary is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the activities of the CalEPA’s office, two boards, and three departments, including the Department of Pesticide Regulation (DPR), Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC), and the Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA).  DPR protects workers and consumers by ensuring the safe use of pesticides through registration, permitting and training.  DTSC cleans up hazardous waste sites to put them back into productive use and reduce blight and contamination to the neighborhoods and surrounding environments.  OEHHA serves as the scientific foundation for CalEPA’s environmental regulations and provides valuable information to consumers, policy makers and manufacturers on the safety of chemicals in our environment. [39][40]

In California Governor Jerry Brown's January 2017 State of the State address, he assuaged fears that California would cower in the face of Republican-controlled Washington. [41] Brown reiterated promises to protect undocumented immigrants, provide health care to the needy and continue his signature fight against climate change. [42]

Agricultural Worker Protection Standard

The Worker Protection Standard (WPS) is a federal regulation designed to protect employees on farms, forests, nurseries and greenhouses from occupational exposures to agricultural pesticides. [43] The EPA's Agricultural (WPS) is aimed at reducing the risk of pesticide poisoning and injury among agricultural workers and pesticide handlers. [44] They provide occupational protections to over 2 million agricultural workers (people involved in the production of agricultural plants) and pesticide handlers (people who mix, load, or apply crop pesticides) who work at over 600,000 agricultural establishments (farms, forests, nurseries and greenhouses. [45]

California Department of Pesticide Regulation edit

See also: California Department of Pesticide Regulation

The Department of Pesticide Regulation (DPR) regulates all aspects of pesticide sales and use to protect public health and the environment. [46]

California Department of Toxic Substances Control

See also: California Department of Toxic Substances Control

The California Department of Toxic Substances Control regulates hazardous waste, conducts cleanups, and develops and promotes pollution prevention. They aim to restore, protect, and enhance the environment, to ensure public health, environmental quality and vitality. [47]

Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment

See also: California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment

The Office of EnvironmentaL Health Hazard Assessment conducts objective scientific evaluations of risk posed by hazardous substances. [48]

Health edit

 
Workers harvesting strawberries in Salinas, California

Pesticide-Related Health Issues edit

Agriculture systems in the United States are cited as the single largest user of pesticides. Pesticides, while registered with the EPA, are made of both active and inert ingredients and are currently not tested for health effects that are chronic or acute.[49]

30% of pesticides used in California agriculture are known to be cancer-causing chemicals and to cause reproductive harm[50]. Some health issues associated with pesticide exposure are in increase in tumor-related death. Other studies found an increase for brain cancer, non-hodgkins lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, hairy-cell leukemia ,kidney cancer, lung cancer [51], pancreatic cancer, prostate cancer, and stomach cancer over a long period of time in relation to pesticide exposure. [52]

Access to Health Care edit

There are a multitude of reasons for why a great number of workers do not have access to health care. Since 84% percent of farmworkers in the U.S. are Latino, many do not speak English. The language barrier constitutes a prominent reason for lack of insurance among farmworkers. In 2005, the National Agricultural Worker Survey reported that only 22% of farmworkers in America are covered for health insurance. Migrant farmworkers are also reported to have a low education levels. Other reasons are related to lack of transportation financial means, and migrant health centers.[53] While it is difficult to synthesize farmworker demographic data, one study found that a little more than half of U.S. farmworkers were in the United States without legal citizenship. The lack of authorization has been linked to an avoidance of health care professionals and other amenities that could potentially alert authorities of their status.

 
Former President Obama signing health care bill

Obama Administration edit

With the Affordable Care Act and under federal law, undocumented immigrants have access to emergency services and emergency medicaid[54], but the ACA denies subsidies and coverage for undocumented aliens[55].

Trump Administration edit

President Trump's nomination for for Secretary of Health and Human Services is Representative Tom Price from Georgia, offically confirmed by the Senate on February 10, 2017[56].

In March 6, 2017, House Republicans introduced the American Health Care Act of 2017 as a 3-phase act to repeal the previous administration's Affordable Care Act[57]. According to experts, the Bill was fatally flawed and would cause the cost of healthcare to rise[55].

The bill was withdrawn on March 24th after failing to gain support.

A large portion of Donald Trump’s campaign and first months in office were/have been focused on the idea of securing the United States border through advocation of a wall on the US-Mexico border, an increase of  undocumented immigrant deportations in the US, and a banning travel from certain countries in the middle east[58]. Studies have shown that a very influential factor that prevents undocumented immigrants from seeking necessary medical help is the fear of deportation[59].  The increase in both anti-immigrant rhetoric and the tangible crackdowns on immigration has increased the fear of deportation for undocumented immigrants. As such, the likelihood of undocumented immigrants to seek medical attention when necessary has gone down[60], creating another level to the barriers that prevent undocumented immigrants from receiving health care.

Notes edit

  1. ^ "USDA ERS - Background". www.ers.usda.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-13.
  2. ^ "North American Free Trade Agreement". Wikipedia. 2017-03-13.
  3. ^ Bacon, David. "Globalization and NAFTA Caused Migration from Mexico | Political Research Associates". Retrieved 2017-03-16.
  4. ^ Service, USDA Economic Research. "U.S.-Mexico Corn Trade During the NAFTA Era: New Twists to an Old Story". wayback.archive-it.org. Retrieved 2017-04-03.
  5. ^ "North American Free Trade Agreement". Wikipedia. 2017-04-17.
  6. ^ "North American Free Trade Agreement". Wikipedia. 2017-03-31.
  7. ^ Gallagher, Kevin P. "NAFTA and the Environment: Lessons from Mexico and Beyond". Retrieved 4-2-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  8. ^ a b https://www.congress.gov/bill/108th-congress/senate-bill/1645
  9. ^ a b c "Congressional Record". congress.gov. Retrieved 2017-03-16.
  10. ^ "United Farm Workers geography". depts.washington.edu. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  11. ^ Hoffman, Pat. "UFW fights harvest of poison" (PDF). https://libraries.ucsd.edu/. Retrieved 4-23-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help); External link in |website= (help)
  12. ^ a b c Gordon, Robert (1999-01-01). "Poisons in the Fields: The United Farm Workers, Pesticides, and Environmental Politics". Pacific Historical Review. 68 (1): 51–77. doi:10.2307/3641869. JSTOR 3641869.
  13. ^ a b c d Luna, Marcos (2012-01-01). The Environment Since 1945. Infobase Learning. ISBN 9781438138114.
  14. ^ "Farmworkers in California: A Brief Introduction" (PDF). http://www.library.ca.gov/. 8/13. Retrieved 4/13/17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= and |date= (help); External link in |website= (help)
  15. ^ "Timeline of Agricultural Labor -". National Farm Worker Ministry. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  16. ^ Hayes, Helene (2001). U.S. Immigration Policies and the Undocumented Westport. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 978-0-275-95411-6.
  17. ^ "Braceros: History, Compensation - Rural Migration News | Migration Dialogue". migration.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  18. ^ "Timeline of Agricultural Labor -". National Farm Worker Ministry. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  19. ^ "The History of Mexican Immigration to the U.S. in the Early 20th Century | Insights: Scholarly Work at the John W. Kluge Center". blogs.loc.gov. 2015-03-11. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  20. ^ "Uneasy Neighbors: A Brief History of Mexican-U.S. Migration". Harvard Magazine. 2007-05-01. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  21. ^ "H-2A Visa". Wikipedia. 2017-03-10.
  22. ^ "The H-2A problem: Why a perfectly legal farmworker visa program isn't being used more". UPI. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  23. ^ "The H-2A problem: Why a perfectly legal farmworker visa program isn't being used more". UPI. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  24. ^ Mines, Richard (February 2006). "Data on Crops, Employment and Farmworker Demographics: A Resource for California Rural Legal Assistance" (PDF). migrationfiles.ucdavis.edu. Retrieved 4-3-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  25. ^ "Selected Statistics on Farmworkers" (PDF). www.farmworkerjusticce.org. Retrieved 4-3-17. {{cite web}}: Check date values in: |access-date= (help)
  26. ^ "Analysis | The first brick hasn't been set, and Trump's border wall is already going south on him". Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  27. ^ Dickerson, Caitlin; Medina, Jennifer (2017-02-09). "California Farmers Backed Trump, but Now Fear Losing Field Workers". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  28. ^ EPA,OA, US. "EPA History". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  29. ^ EPA,OEI,OIAA,IAD, US. "Regulatory Information by Topic: Pesticides". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  30. ^ Percival, Robert (March 14, 2017). "Environmental Law in the Trump Administration". Emory Corporate Governance and Accountability Review. 225: 12.
  31. ^ Davenport, Coral (2017-02-17). "Senate Confirms Scott Pruitt as E.P.A. Head". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  32. ^ Davenport, Coral (2017-03-07). "E.P.A. Head Stacks Agency With Climate Change Skeptics". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  33. ^ Thrush, Glenn; Davenport, Coral (2017-03-15). "Donald Trump Budget Slashes Funds for E.P.A. and State Department". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  34. ^ Tabuchi, Hiroko (2017-04-10). "What's at Stake in Trump's Proposed E.P.A. Cuts". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  35. ^ "Trump's budget takes a sledgehammer to the EPA". Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  36. ^ "Trump's budget takes a sledgehammer to the EPA". Washington Post. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  37. ^ "Donald Trump just completely deleted one of the government's most important websites". The Independent. 2017-04-24. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  38. ^ California, State of. "About Us – CalEPA". www.calepa.ca.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  39. ^ California, State of. "About Us – CalEPA". www.calepa.ca.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  40. ^ California, State of. "CalEPA Boards, Departments and Office – CalEPA". www.calepa.ca.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  41. ^ "Jerry Brown: 'California is not turning back. Not now, not ever'". sacbee. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  42. ^ "Jerry Brown: 'California is not turning back. Not now, not ever'". sacbee. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  43. ^ EPA,OCSPP,OPP, US. "Agricultural Worker Protection Standard (WPS)". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  44. ^ EPA,OCSPP,OPP, US. "Agricultural Worker Protection Standard (WPS)". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  45. ^ EPA,OCSPP,OPP, US. "Agricultural Worker Protection Standard (WPS)". www.epa.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-24.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  46. ^ California, State of. "CalEPA Boards, Departments and Office – CalEPA". www.calepa.ca.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  47. ^ California, State of. "CalEPA Boards, Departments and Office – CalEPA". www.calepa.ca.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  48. ^ California, State of. "CalEPA Boards, Departments and Office – CalEPA". www.calepa.ca.gov. Retrieved 2017-04-24.
  49. ^ Moses, Marian (August 2016). "Pesticide-Related Health Problems and Farmworkers". Sage Journals. 37 (3): 115–130. doi:10.1177/216507998903700304. S2CID 22226016.
  50. ^ https://www.cdph.ca.gov/programs/ohsep/Documents/soeh0702.pdf
  51. ^ Barthel, E (October 2009). "Increased risk of lung cancer in pesticide‐exposed male agricultural workers". Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health. 8 (5–6).
  52. ^ Alavanja, Michael (April 2004). "Health Effects of Chronic Pesticide Exposure: Cancer and Neurotoxicity". Annual Reviews. 25: 155–197. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.25.101802.123020. PMID 15015917.
  53. ^ Villarejo, Don (May 2003). "The Health of U.S. Hired Farm Workers". Annual Review of Public Health. 24: 175–193. doi:10.1146/annurev.publhealth.24.100901.140901. PMID 12359914. Retrieved 04/05/17. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |accessdate= (help)
  54. ^ "Immigrants and the Affordable Care Act (ACA) - National Immigration Law Center". National Immigration Law Center. Retrieved 2017-04-13.
  55. ^ a b "Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act". Wikipedia. 2017-04-16.
  56. ^ "Cabinet of Donald Trump". Wikipedia. 2017-04-24.
  57. ^ "American Health Care Act of 2017". Wikipedia. 2017-04-08.
  58. ^ Shear, Michael. "New Trump Deportation Rules Allow Far More Expulsions". New York Times.
  59. ^ Vargas, Edward (2015). "Immigration enforcement and mixed-status families: The effects of risk of deportation on Medicaid use". US National Library of Medicine. 57: 83–89. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2015.07.009. PMC 4592159. PMID 26435562.
  60. ^ Belluz, Julia. "Trump's immigration crackdown has serious public health implications".


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