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User:LeGabrie/sandbox

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Decline and fall edit

At Meroe, the last pyramids as well as non-royal burials are dated to the mid-4th century,[1] which is conventionally thought to be when the kingdom of Kush came to an end. Afterwards began the so-called "post-Meroitic" period.[2] This period saw a decline of urbanism, the disappearance of the Meroitic religion and script[3] as well as the emergence of regional elites buried in large tumuli.[4] Princely burials from Qustul (c. 380–410) and Ballana (410–500) in Lower Nubia are connected to the rise of Nobatia.[5] To its north were the Blemmyes, who in around 394 established a kingdom centered around Talmis[6] that lasted until it was conquered by Nobatia in around 450.[7] The political developments south of the third cataract remain obscure,[8] but it appears that Dongola, the later capital of Makuria as well as Soba, the capital of Alodia, were founded in that period. Nobatia, Makuria and Alodia eventually converted to Christianity in the 6th century, marking the beginning of medieval Nubia.[9]



  • Edwards, David (2013). "Medieval and post-medieval states of the Nile Valley". In Peter Mitchell, Paul Lane (ed.). The Oxford Handbook of African Archaeology. Oxford University. pp. 789–798.
  • Edwards, David (2019). "Post-Meroitic Nubia". In Dietrich Raue (ed.). Handbook of Ancient Nubia. De Gruyter. pp. 943–964.
  • el-Tayeb, Mahmoud (2020). "Post-Meroe in Upper Nubia". The Oxford Handbook of Ancient Nubia. Oxford University. pp. 731–758.
  • Török, László (2009). Between Two Worlds. The Frontier Region between Ancient Nubia and Egypt 3700 BC – AD 500. Brill.




The raids were possibly orchestrated by the Byzantine Empire and its Rus vassal in Tmutarakan, prince Mstislav, and might have been meant to intimidate the various Muslim emirates in the Caucasus in face of the planed Byzantine expansion in Armenia.[10]

The Alan king of that time seems to have been called Gabriel, known from a contemporary Greek seal where he styled himself by the Byzantine title exousiokrator.[11]

Rus raiders probably arrivals from Scandinavia who entered Byzantium in 1030.[12]


Kingdom of Tylis
c. 278 BC–c. 212 BC
CapitalTylis
Common languagesCeltic (ruling elite)
Thracian (common)
Religion
Celtic polytheism, Thracian polytheism
GovernmentMonarchy
Historical eraClassical antiquity
• Foundation
c. 278 BC
• Disestablished
c. 212 BC
Today part ofBulgaria
Turkey

The kingdom of Tylis was an ancient Celtic kingdom in what is now Bulgaria and European Turkey. It was established shortly after the failed Celtic invasion of Greece in 279 BC, when chief Comontorius led survivors of the campaign into eastern Thrace and founded a new town named Tylis, henceforth the capital. Little is known about the history of the kingdom, although it seemed to have thrived on extorting tribute from its neighbours. It was finally destroyed during the rule of king Cavarus, who was deposed by rebellious Thracians in around 212 BC.

History edit

Early history edit

Invasion of Greece edit

The Diodochos Lysimachus, who had ruled an empire stretching from Thessaly and Macedon into Asia Minor,[13] was killed in the Battle of Corupedium in 281.[14] Likely having checked previous Celtic incursions beforehand, it was his demise that allowed the Celts to push southwards.[15]

In 279 the Celts invaded the kingdom of Macedon. By that point most of Macedon was ruled by king Ptolemy Ceraunus, an usurper who had asserted his rule over his rival Antigonus II Gonatas[16] and the widow of Lysimachus.[17] The Celts under chief Bolgius offered their withdrawal for money, but Ceraunus interpreted this as a sign of weakness and attacked. His army was defeated and he himself got killed.[18] Effectively without a king for the next two years, Macedon descended into anarchy.[19] The Celts, now causing havoc in the countryside without being able to storm the cities and fortifications,[20] were eventually defeated by the general Sosthenes, albeit not decisively.[18] Bolgius returned home.[21]

 
The route of the Celtic incursions (280–277)

Brennus's successor was Cerethrius, who led the remainder of his warband into Thrace in 277. The Roman historian Justin reported how Antigonus II Gonatas hired Gallic mercenaries in Lysimacheia, possibly Cerethrius's warband. The same author, however, also described a battle at Lysimacheia beween Antigonos and a Celtic army that supposedly occurred in the same year, ending in the defeat of the latter. In any case, Antigonus left Lysimacheia strengthened[22] and seized the Macedonian throne with the help of several thousand Celtic mercenaries.[23] Another Gaulish contingent crossed the Bosphorus to fight for king Nicomedes I of Bithynia.[24]

Establishment in Thrace edit

 
Celtic couple of the 3rd century BC
 
Bronze boar from Mezek, southeastern Bulgaria.

While the political situation of Thrace in the 3rd century remains confused and enigmatic, there is ample evidence that the kingdom of Tylis was just one of many political entities that existed in Thrace at that time.[25]

King Cavarus and demise edit

 
Copper coin of Cavarus, the last king of Tylis

References edit

  1. ^ Török 2009, p. 517.
  2. ^ el-Tayeb 2020, pp. 772–773.
  3. ^ Edwards 2019, p. 947.
  4. ^ Edwards 2019, p. 950.
  5. ^ Török 2009, pp. 520–521.
  6. ^ Török 2009, pp. 524–525.
  7. ^ Török 2009, pp. 527–528.
  8. ^ Török 2009, pp. 537–538.
  9. ^ Edwards 2013, p. 791.
  10. ^ Shepard 2006, pp. 35–36.
  11. ^ Shepard 2006, pp. 36–37.
  12. ^ Shepard 2006, p. 36.
  13. ^ Lund 1992, p. 1.
  14. ^ Lund 1992, pp. 205–206.
  15. ^ Waterfield 2021, p. 39.
  16. ^ Waterfield 2021, pp. 38–39.
  17. ^ Sánchez 2017, pp. 192–194.
  18. ^ a b Rankin 2002, p. 88.
  19. ^ Waterfield 2021, pp. 39–40.
  20. ^ Waterfield 2021, p. 40.
  21. ^ Sánchez 2017, p. 197.
  22. ^ Sánchez 2017, pp. 199–200.
  23. ^ Waterfield 2021, p. 119.
  24. ^ Sánchez 2017, p. 200.
  25. ^ Delev 2015, pp. 61–63.

Literature edit

  • Delev, Peter (2015). "From Koroupedion to the Beginning of the Third Mithridatic War (281–73 BCE)". In Valeva, Julia; Nankov, Emil; Graninger, Danver (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Thrace. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 59–74. ISBN 978-1444351040.
  • Emilov, Julij (2015). "Celts". In Valeva, Julia; Nankov, Emil; Graninger, Danver (eds.). A Companion to Ancient Thrace. Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 366–381. ISBN 978-1444351040.
  • Lund, Helene S. (1992). Lysimachus. A Study in Early Hellenistic Kingship. Taylor & Francis Ltd. ISBN 978-0415070614.
  • Rankin, David (2002). Celts and the Classical World. Taylor & Francis.
  • Sánchez, Fernando López (2017). "Galatians in Macedonia (280–277 BC). Invasion or Invitation?". In Toni Ñaco del Hoyo, Fernando López Sánchez (ed.). War, Warlords, and Interstate Relations in the Ancient Mediterranean. Brill. pp. 183–203.
  • Waterfield, Robin (2021). The Making of a King. Antigonus Gonatas of Macedon and the Greeks. Oxford University.
  • Jovanović The eastern Celts

https://www.academia.edu/21664091/The_Mal_Tepe_Tomb_at_Mezek_and_the_problem_of_the_Celtic_kingdom_in_South_Eastern_Thrace he Celtic presence in Thrace during the 3rd century BC in the light of new archaeological data









A small group of individuals fought in the revolt.[1]

It has even been proposed that its antisemitism was appropriated directly from Naszim, although this seems unlikely.[2]

These rhetorics were rooted in Islamic tradition[3] but also bore similarities to those found in contemporary fascism[4] and might have been anti-Jewish Axis propaganda during ww2[5]


  • Gershoni, Israel (2014). "Introduction: An Analysis of Arab Responses to Fascism and Nazism in Middle Eastern Studies". In Israel Gershoni (ed.). Arab Responses to Fascism and Nazism. Attraction and Repulsion. pp. 1–34.

During WW2 the situation in Palestine stalled, largely because of the lack of an Arab leadership.[6]

  1. ^ Abu-Amr 1994, p. 3.
  2. ^ Gershoni 2010, p. 27.
  3. ^ el-Aswaisi 1998, p. 203.
  4. ^ Gershoni & Jankowski 2010, p. 223.
  5. ^ Herf 2009, p. 244.
  6. ^ El-Aswaisi 1998, p. 187.
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