My assigned article: "Islam in Southeast Asia". Here are my planned changes:
-Delete the section on Islam in Southeast Asia and combine it with the History section
-Expand and add sub-sections to the History section and the Contemporary Islam in Southeast Asia section (e.g. Prevalence)
-Check citations and facts for the entire article (many citations are missing)
-Within history, add: Colonial period, post-Colonialism (e.g. revolutions, etc. that have happened since the 15th/16th century, when this article ends
-Within Contemporary Islam, add: Prevalence, how it has interacted with other spiritual beliefs, brief information on main countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei), interaction with government and politics, interaction with economy (e.g. Islamic banking), social/cultural impacts, Islamic law, diversity of practice
Here is my draft, changes indicated in bold.
Contents
1 History
2 Contemporary Islam in Southeast Asia
Prevalence
3 See also
4 References
5 External Links
History
According to the Islamic Council of Victoria, historians argue that Arab merchants dominated trade in Southeast Asia in the early ninth century. There existed a colony of foreign Muslims on the west coast of Sumatra by 674 CE; other Muslim settlements began to appear after 878 CE when Islam increasingly took root among the people. However, little remains from these early communities, and the religion did not spread to significant parts of the population until the 12th century.[1]
In the 12th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia, the Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (Kedah). The capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked. Soon after, the King of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in year 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in the year 1267. The King of Malacca Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and their son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon Malacca became the centre of Islamic study and maritime trade; other rulers followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He."[2]
In 1511, the Portugese took over Malacca, but various other Muslim states began to grow in size and economic and political prominence. For example, Aceh dominated the region, both politically and economically, in the early seventeenth century. Through familial and trade relationships in these Muslim states, non-Islam states were slowly exposed to the faith. As it spread, Islam encountered pre-existing spiritual beliefs[1]--including Buddhism and Hinduism[2]--which continued to be practiced alongside Islam or were incorporated into Islam. islamic law was also formally practiced in most areas that had encountered Islam, affecting cultural practices.[1]
There are several theories to the Islamization process in Southeast Asia. The first theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders brought Islam to the region. The second theory is the role of missionaries or Sufis. The Sufi missionaries played a significant role in spreading the faith by syncretising Islamic ideas with existing local beliefs and religious notions. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam which further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th century theminions came and helped king George the 1st, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the region as the religion provided a unifying force among the ruling and trading classes near mister man.
Islam also spread through its translation into Malay, a language that transected class[2]. Some of the most significant Malay authors that helped in this translation are Hamzah Fansuri, Shams al-Din, and 'Abd al-Ra-uf.[1]
Contemporary Islam in Southeast Asia
Islam in Southeast Asia is multi-faceted and multi-layered. Different interpretations of the faith have resulted in a variety of groups. In Indonesia, there is the Nahdlatul Ulama, which preaches closely to the Shafi`i school of legal accretion, and the Muhammadiyah, whose outlook is a blend of modernist ideals with Islamic thoughts. Along with these two major groups, other Islamic groups also played an important role in Indonesian society, politics and economy, with their followers forming Islamic civil groups and political parties.
Since the late 1970s, an Islamic resurgence is taking place in the region. Dakwah movements mushroomed throughout Southeast Asia. These movements, in general, aim to create a strong Islamic identity among the Muslims. As a result, Islam began to assume a larger role in public life, underlined by the increased donning of headscarves among Muslim women, for one example. Economic growth resulted in modest affluence which has translated into more religious investments like the Haj and Islamic literature. The Malaysian government promotes Islam through its Islamization policies covering society, economics and education and, most recently,Islam Hadhari.
Islam has intersected with other religious practices in Southeast Asia in many different ways. For example, jinn, which indicates Islamic spiritual beings, has come to include Javanese spirits, as well.
Indonesia is the most populous Muslim country today.[[[Wikipedia:Citation needed|citation needed]]] Higher employment rates of women is an important example in the difference between Indonesian and Middle Eastern cultures.
Prevalence (in descending order)
Indonesia: 87.2%, one of six official religions[3]
Brunei: 78.8%, official religion[4]
Malaysia: 61.3%, official religion[5]
Singapore: 14.3%[6]
Philippines: 5%[7]
Thailand: 4.9%[8]
Myanmar: 4.3%[9]
Cambodia: 1.9%[10]
Timor-Leste: 0.3%[11]
Vietnam: 0.1%[12]
Laos: 0.01%[13]
10/26, Here are my new additions (in bold):
To-Do's:
X -Delete the section on Islam in Southeast Asia and combine it with the History section
X -Expand and add sub-sections to the History section and the Contemporary Islam in Southeast Asia section (e.g. Prevalence)
-Check citations and facts for the entire article (many citations are missing)
-Within history, add: Colonial period (Will did this), post-Colonialism (e.g. revolutions, etc. that have happened since the 15th/16th century, when this article ends
X -Within Contemporary Islam, add: Prevalence, how it has interacted with other spiritual beliefs, brief information on main countries (Indonesia, Malaysia, Brunei), interaction with government and politics, interaction with economy (e.g. Islamic banking), social/cultural impacts, Islamic law, diversity of practice
Contemporary Islam in Southeast Asia
Since the late 1970s, an Islamic resurgence is taking place in the region. Dakwah movements mushroomed throughout Southeast Asia. These movements, in general, aim to create a strong Islamic identity among the Muslims. As a result, Islam began to assume a larger role in public life, underlined by the increased donning of headscarves among Muslim women, for one example. Economic growth resulted in modest affluence which has translated into more religious investments like the Haj and Islamic literature. The Malaysian government promotes Islam through its Islamization policies covering society, economics and education and, most recently,Islam Hadhari.
Today, Islam in Southeast Asia is multi-faceted and multi-layered. Different interpretations of the faith have resulted in a variety of groups. In Indonesia, there is the Nahdlatul Ulama, which preaches closely to the Shafi`i school of legal accretion, and the Muhammadiyah, whose outlook is a blend of modernist ideals with Islamic thoughts. Along with these two major groups, other Islamic groups also played an important role in Indonesian society, politics and economy, with their followers forming Islamic civil groups and political parties. Islam has also intersected with other religious practices in Southeast Asia in many different ways. For example, jinn, which indicates Islamic spiritual beings, has come to include Javanese spirits, as well.
In today's modern age, Muslims interact with global technology, consumerism, and ideas in a variety of ways while practicing their faith. For some, this has resulted in an increase in religiosity and the observation of traditions such as Islamic devotional practices and fasting during Ramadan. As another example, Muslims in Southeast Asia have performed pilgrimages to the Mecca since the 17th century and continue to do so.[14]
In Southeast Asia, Islam also influences other aspects of life. For example, there are an increasing number of private Islamic schools, which often combine Islamic religion, culture, and life. Likewise, medicine in Southeast Asia draws on a number of traditions, often combining animism, tibbun (which contains pre-Islamic elements), and hikmah (which is based upon a lineage of Muslim scholars and influenced modern biomedical practice). [14] [Gender]
[Government and Law]
11/2, my draft as it stands now:
Contents
1 History
2 Contemporary Islam in Southeast Asia
3 See also
4 References
5 External Links
History
According to the Islamic Council of Victoria, historians argue that Arab merchants dominated trade in Southeast Asia in the early ninth century. There existed a colony of foreign Muslims on the west coast of Sumatra by 674 CE; other Muslim settlements began to appear after 878 CE when Islam increasingly took root among the people. However, little remains from these early communities, and the religion did not spread to significant parts of the population until the 12th century.[1]
In the 12th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia, the Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (Kedah). The capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked. Soon after, the King of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in year 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in the year 1267. The King of Malacca Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and their son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon Malacca became the centre of Islamic study and maritime trade; other rulers followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He."[2]
In 1511, the Portugese took over Malacca, but various other Muslim states began to grow in size and economic and political prominence. For example, Aceh dominated the region, both politically and economically, in the early seventeenth century. Through familial and trade relationships in these Muslim states, non-Islam states were slowly exposed to the faith. As it spread, Islam encountered pre-existing spiritual beliefs[1]--including Buddhism and Hinduism[2]--which continued to be practiced alongside Islam or were incorporated into Islam. Indeed, the faith introduced by some of the religious merchants was Sufism, a mystical version of Islam that is rejected by more conservative Muslims.[15] Islamic law was also formally practiced in most areas that had encountered Islam, affecting cultural practices.[1]
There are several theories to the Islamization process in Southeast Asia. The first theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders brought Islam to the region. The second theory is the role of missionaries or Sufis. The Sufi missionaries played a significant role in spreading the faith by syncretising Islamic ideas with existing local beliefs and religious notions. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam which further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th century theminions came and helped king George the 1st, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the region as the religion provided a unifying force among the ruling and trading classes near mister man.
Islam also spread through its translation into Malay, a language that transected class[2]. Some of the most significant Malay authors that helped in this translation are Hamzah Fansuri, Shams al-Din, and 'Abd al-Ra-uf.[1]
Contemporary Islam in Southeast Asia
Islam in Southeast Asia is multi-faceted and multi-layered. Different interpretations of the faith have resulted in a variety of groups. In Indonesia, there is the Nahdlatul Ulama, which preaches closely to the Shafi`i school of legal accretion, and the Muhammadiyah, whose outlook is a blend of modernist ideals with Islamic thoughts. Along with these two major groups, other Islamic groups also played an important role in Indonesian society, politics and economy, with their followers forming Islamic civil groups and political parties. Muslims in Southeast Asia also come from a variety of ethnic groups and backgrounds and speak a number of different languages, including Thai, Burmese, Malay, Marano, Tausug, Bahasa Indonesia, Javanese, and Chinese.[15] Through travel to Arab countries--for the Hajj-piligrimage or religious study--Muslims in Southeast Asia have also undertaken the translation of Islamic texts into local languages.[15]
Despite these differences, there are still common traditions practiced among many Muslims in Southeast Asia. For example, the five duties of Islam (shahada, salat, hajj, sawm, and zakat) form a foundation for many individuals' faith. Likewise, there are other shared traditions, such as prayer before meals.[16]
Since the late 1970s, an Islamic resurgence is taking place in the region. Dakwah movements mushroomed throughout Southeast Asia. These movements, in general, aim to create a strong Islamic identity among the Muslims. As a result, Islam began to assume a larger role in public life, underlined by the increased donning of headscarves among Muslim women, for one example. Economic growth resulted in modest affluence which has translated into more religious investments like the Haj and Islamic literature. The Malaysian government promotes Islam through its Islamization policies covering society, economics and education and, most recently,Islam Hadhari.
Islam has intersected with other religious practices in Southeast Asia in many different ways. For example, jinn, which indicates Islamic spiritual beings, has come to include Javanese spirits, as well.
Indonesia is the most populous Muslim country today.[[[Wikipedia:Citation needed|citation needed]]] Higher employment rates of women is an important example in the difference between Indonesian and Middle Eastern cultures.
In today's modern age, Muslims interact with global technology, consumerism, and ideas in a variety of ways while practicing their faith. For some, this has resulted in an increase in religiosity and the observation of traditions such as Islamic devotional practices and fasting during Ramadan. As another example, Muslims in Southeast Asia have performed pilgrimages to the Mecca since the 17th century and continue to do so.[14]
In Southeast Asia, Islam also influences other aspects of life. For example, there are an increasing number of private Islamic schools, which often combine Islamic religion, culture, and life. Likewise, medicine in Southeast Asia draws on a number of traditions, often combining animism, tibbun (which contains pre-Islamic elements), and hikmah (which is based upon a lineage of Muslim scholars and influenced modern biomedical practice). [14]
Prevalence (in descending order)
Indonesia: 87.2%, one of six official religions[3]
Brunei: 78.8%, official religion[4]
Malaysia: 61.3%, official religion[5]
Singapore: 14.3%[6]
Philippines: 5%[7]
Thailand: 4.9%[8]
Myanmar: 4.3%[9]
Cambodia: 1.9%[10]
Timor-Leste: 0.3%[11]
Vietnam: 0.1%[12]
Laos: 0.01%[13]
See Also
Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_di_Timor_Leste
http://guides.library.cornell.edu/IslamSoutheastAsia
http://asiasociety.org/education/islam-southeast-asia
Plan: Return to http://asiasociety.org/education/islam-southeast-asia?page=1 and the sources provided by Inga for more information on contemporary Islam in Southeast Asia (and talk more about the government and economy. Add a post-colonialism section to "History."
FINAL DRAFT (Changes to original article indicated in bold)
editContents
1 History
2 Contemporary Islam in Southeast Asia
3 See also
4 References
5 External Links
History
According to the Islamic Council of Victoria, historians argue that Arab merchants dominated trade in Southeast Asia in the early ninth century. There existed a colony of foreign Muslims on the west coast of Sumatra by 674 CE; other Muslim settlements began to appear after 878 CE when Islam increasingly took root among the people. However, little remains from these early communities, and the religion did not spread to significant parts of the population until the 12th century.[1]
In the 12th century, a turbulent period occurred in the history of Maritime Southeast Asia, the Indian Chola navy crossed the ocean and attacked the Srivijaya kingdom of Sangrama Vijayatungavarman in Kadaram (Kedah). The capital of the powerful maritime kingdom was sacked and the king was taken captive. Along with Kadaram, Pannai in present-day Sumatra and Malaiyur and the Malayan peninsula were attacked. Soon after, the King of Kedah Phra Ong Mahawangsa became the first ruler to abandon the traditional Hindu faith and converted to Islam with the Sultanate of Kedah established in year 1136. Samudera Pasai converted to Islam in the year 1267. The King of Malacca Parameswara married the princess of Pasai, and their son became the first sultan of Malacca. Soon Malacca became the centre of Islamic study and maritime trade; other rulers followed suit. Indonesian religious leader and Islamic scholar Hamka (1908–1981) wrote in 1961: "The development of Islam in Indonesia and Malaya is intimately related to a Chinese Muslim, Admiral Zheng He."[2]
In 1511, the Portugese took over Malacca, but various other Muslim states began to grow in size and economic and political prominence. For example, Aceh dominated the region, both politically and economically, in the early seventeenth century. Through familial and trade relationships in these Muslim states, non-Islam states were slowly exposed to the faith. As it spread, Islam encountered pre-existing spiritual beliefs[1]--including Buddhism and Hinduism[2]--which continued to be practiced alongside Islam or were incorporated into Islam. Indeed, the faith introduced by some of the religious merchants was Sufism, a mystical version of Islam that is rejected by more conservative Muslims.[15] Islamic law was also formally practiced in most areas that had encountered Islam, affecting cultural practices.[1]
There are several theories to the Islamization process in Southeast Asia. The first theory is trade. The expansion of trade among West Asia, India and Southeast Asia helped the spread of the religion as Muslim traders brought Islam to the region. The second theory is the role of missionaries or Sufis. The Sufi missionaries played a significant role in spreading the faith by syncretising Islamic ideas with existing local beliefs and religious notions. Finally, the ruling classes embraced Islam which further aided the permeation of the religion throughout the region. The ruler of the region's most important port, Malacca Sultanate, embraced Islam in the 15th century theminions came and helped king George the 1st, heralding a period of accelerated conversion of Islam throughout the region as the religion provided a unifying force among the ruling and trading classes near mister man. The word daulat refers to the legitimacy of a ruler, through the power of God, and suggests the strong relationship between rule, legitimacy, and the spread of Islam.[17]
The spread of Islam to Southeast Asia also depended largely on the translation and availability of religious texts. This was largely through Malay, a language that transected class[2]. There are also a number of works in Javanese, particularly related to Javanese-Islamic mysticism.[18] Some of the most significant Malay authors that helped in this translation are Hamzah Fansuri, Shams al-Din, and 'Abd al-Ra-uf.[1]
Contemporary Islam in Southeast Asia
Islam in Southeast Asia is multi-faceted and multi-layered. Different interpretations of the faith have resulted in a variety of groups. In Indonesia, there is the Nahdlatul Ulama, which preaches closely to the Shafi`i school of legal accretion, and the Muhammadiyah, whose outlook is a blend of modernist ideals with Islamic thoughts. Along with these two major groups, other Islamic groups also played an important role in Indonesian society, politics and economy, with their followers forming Islamic civil groups and political parties. Muslims in Southeast Asia also come from a variety of ethnic groups and backgrounds and speak a number of different languages, including Thai, Burmese, Malay, Marano, Tausug, Bahasa Indonesia, Javanese, and Chinese.[15] Through travel to Arab countries--for the Hajj-piligrimage or religious study--Muslims in Southeast Asia have also undertaken the translation of Islamic texts into local languages.[15] Daily practices also vary among countries and different regions within each country. Many of these differences relate to government policies and also to whether Muslims make up the majority or minority of the country's population.[18]
Despite these differences, there are still common traditions practiced among many Muslims in Southeast Asia. For example, the five duties of Islam (shahada, salat, hajj, sawm, and zakat) form a foundation for many individuals' faith. Likewise, there are other shared traditions, such as prayer before meals.[16]
Since the late 1970s, an Islamic resurgence is taking place in the region. Dakwah movements mushroomed throughout Southeast Asia. These movements, in general, aim to create a strong Islamic identity among the Muslims and are understood as a response to changes in society and values. These movements have been referred to as "revivalism," "revitalization," "resurgence," "renewal," and "Islamization." [18] As a result, Islam began to assume a larger role in public life, underlined by the increased donning of headscarves among Muslim women, for one example. Economic growth resulted in modest affluence which has translated into more religious investments like the Haj and Islamic literature. The Malaysian government promotes Islam through its Islamization policies covering society, economics and education and, most recently,Islam Hadhari. Some of these movements have reflected a perceived tension between modernity and tradition, and they reflect movements taking place at the same time in other regions, like the Middle East. For example, Southeast Asian scholars who traveled to the Middle East during the early 1900's brought back ideas from the Modernist movement. In Indonesia, there are two large Muslim organizations. One, Muhammidyah, is associated with this Modernist movement while the other, Nahdlatul Ulama, is a more traditional organization meant to oppose the values of Modernism. [17]
Islam has intersected with other religious practices in Southeast Asia in many different ways. For example, jinn, which indicates Islamic spiritual beings, has come to include Javanese spirits, as well. In countries such as Indonesia, in particular, animist traditions (as well as the traditions of other faiths, like Hindu and Buddhism) have become integral to the practice of Islam. Sufism has also shaped Islam in many Southeast Asian countries.[17]
Indonesia is the most populous Muslim country today.[[[Wikipedia:Citation needed|citation needed]]] Higher employment rates of women is an important example in the difference between Indonesian and Middle Eastern cultures.
In today's modern age, Muslims interact with global technology, consumerism, and ideas in a variety of ways while practicing their faith. For some, this has resulted in an increase in religiosity and the observation of traditions such as Islamic devotional practices and fasting during Ramadan. As another example, Muslims in Southeast Asia have performed pilgrimages to the Mecca since the 17th century and continue to do so.[14]
In Southeast Asia, Islam also influences other aspects of life, and there is a close relationship among religion, nation, and ethnicity.[18] For example, there are an increasing number of private Islamic schools, which often combine Islamic religion, culture, and life. Likewise, medicine in Southeast Asia draws on a number of traditions, often combining animism, tibbun (which contains pre-Islamic elements), and hikmah (which is based upon a lineage of Muslim scholars and influenced modern biomedical practice). [14] Islamic banks are also founded on Islamic principles and, for example, do not charge interest.
The division of countries during colonialism divide some ethnic and religious groups, leading to some minority Muslim populations that live at the edge of countries. Various organizations, like the Muslim World League, have advocated for the rights of these minority populations.[18]
Finally, the war on terrorism, particularly since 9/11, has influenced contemporary Islam in Southeast Asia. Many governments in the region have joined antiterrorist coalitions or signed antiterrorist pacts. In some countries, such as the Philippines, the U.S. has sent troops to combat specific terrorist groups.[18]
Prevalence (in descending order)
Indonesia: 87.2%, one of six official religions[3]
Brunei: 78.8%, official religion[4]
Malaysia: 61.3%, official religion[5]
Singapore: 14.3%[6]
Philippines: 5%[7]
Thailand: 4.9%[8]
Myanmar: 4.3%[9]
Cambodia: 1.9%[10]
Timor-Leste: 0.3%[11]
Vietnam: 0.1%[12]
Laos: 0.01%[13]
See Also
Spread of Islam in Southeast Asia
https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam_di_Timor_Leste
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- ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l "Gale - Enter Product Login". go.galegroup.com. Retrieved 2016-11-07.
- ^ a b c d e f "Southeast Asia, Islam in - Oxford Reference". doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001/acref-9780195125580-e-2247.
{{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires|journal=(help) - ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency (28 September 2016). “Indonesia.” The World Factbook. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency (28 September 2016). “Brunei.” The World Factbook. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency (28 September 2016). “Malaysia.” The World Factbook. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency (28 September 2016). “Singapore.” The World Factbook. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency (28 September 2016). “Philippines.” The World Factbook. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency (28 September 2016). “Thailand.” The World Factbook. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency (28 September 2016). “Burma.” The World Factbook. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency (28 September 2016). “Cambodia.” The World Factbook. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency (28 September 2016). “Timor-Leste.” The World Factbook. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ a b c Central Intelligence Agency (28 September 2016). “Vietnam.” The World Factbook. Retrieved 6 October 2016.
- ^ a b c “2008 Report on International Religious Freedom,” Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, Under Secretary for Democracy and Global Affairs, United States, Department of State, September 2008.
- ^ a b c d e f Voices of Islam in Southeast Asia: A Contemporary Sourcebook. Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies Publications. 2006. ISBN 9812303685.
- ^ a b c d e f Houissa, Ali. "LibGuides: Islam in Southeast Asia: Home". guides.library.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2016-10-24.
- ^ a b "Islam in Southeast Asia". Asia Society. Retrieved 2016-10-24.
- ^ a b c "Islam in Southeast Asia | Islam, Youth & New Media". islamtoday.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2016-11-05.
- ^ a b c d e f Houben, Vincent (2003). "Southeast Asia and Islam". The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. 588: 149–170.