User:Kharbaan Ghaltaan/sandbox1

State of Palestine دولة فلسطين (Arabic) Dawlat Filasṭīn
Flag Coat of arms
Anthem: "فدائي" "Fida'i" "Fedayeen Warrior"
Territory claimed by Palestine (green). Claimed territory annexed by Israel (light green).
Status	UN observer state under Israeli occupation Recognized by 145 UN member states
Proclaimed capital Administrative center	Jerusalem (limited recognition) Ramallah
Largest city	Gaza City (before 2023), currently in flux
Official languages	Arabic
Demonym(s)	Palestinian
Government	Unitary semi-presidential republic
• President	Mahmoud Abbas
• Prime Minister	Mohammad Mustafa
• Speaker of the Parliament	Aziz Dweik
Legislature	National Council
Formation
• Declaration of Independence	15 November 1988
• UNGA observer state resolution	29 November 2012
• Sovereignty dispute with Israel	Ongoing
Area
• Total	6,020 km2 (2,320 sq mi) (163rd)
• Water (%)	3.5
• West Bank	5,655 km2
• Gaza Strip	365 km2
Population
• 2023 estimate	5,483,450 (121st)
• Density	731/km2 (1,893.3/sq mi)
GDP (PPP)	2023 estimate
• Total	$36.391 billion (138th)
• Per capita	$6,642 (140th)
GDP (nominal)	2021 estimate
• Total	$18.109 billion (121st)
• Per capita	$3,464 (131st)
Gini (2016)	33.7 medium
HDI (2021)	0.715 high (106th)
Currency	Egyptian pound (EGP) Israeli new shekel (ILS) Jordanian dinar (JOD) (de facto)
Time zone	UTC+2 (Palestine Standard Time)
• Summer (DST)	UTC+3 (Palestine Summer Time)
Date format	dd/mm/yyyy
Driving side	right
Calling code	+970
ISO 3166 code	PS
Internet TLD	.ps

Palestine (Arabic: فلسطين, romanized: Filasṭīn), officially the State of Palestine (دولة فلسطين, Dawlat Filasṭīn), is a partially recognized country in the southern Levant region of West Asia. It encompasses two disconnected territories — the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, collectively known as the Palestinian territories — within the larger region of Palestine. The country shares its borders with Israel to north, west and south, Jordan to the east and Egypt to the southwest. It has a combined land area of 6,020 square kilometres (2,320 sq mi) while its population exceeds five million people. Its proclaimed capital is Jerusalem while Ramallah serves as its administrative center and Gaza City was its largest city until massive population movements began in 2023 due to the Israeli invaison of the Gaza strip. Arabic is the official language. Palestinians are ethnically Arabs, while minority ethnic among them includes Armenians and Samaritans. The majority of Palestinians are Muslim while Christians also has a significant presence.

The region of Palestine has played an important part in world history. The Canaanites, Israelites, Assyrians, Babylonians, Persians, Greeks, Romans and Byzantines all left their mark on the land. In addition to its historical significance, Palestine holds profound religious importance for Judaism, Christianity and Islam. Throughout history the region has experienced periods of coexistence and conflict between different religious and ethnic groups. Notably, during the Middle Ages, when Jewish communities faced persecution, they found refuge and protection under Muslim rule and the wider Islamic world. The Ottoman Empire, which controlled Palestine from the 16th century until its collapse at the end of World War I, provided a sanctuary for Jews fleeing persecution in Europe. The end of the Ottoman rule marked a new chapter in Palestine's history. Following World War I, the British Empire assumed control of the region under the League of Nations mandate. The British Mandate for Palestine, established in 1920, brought significant changes to the political and social landscape of the area, setting the stage for the conflicts and struggles that would follow.

The establishment of the Israel in 1948 was accompanied by a war which led to the expulsion of many Palestinians and created a large refugee population. Subsequent Arab–Israeli wars, including the Six-Day War in 1967, resulted in the Israeli occupation of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. On 15th November 1988, Palestinian National Council, the legislative body of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) led by Yasser Arafat, declared the establishment of the state. Signing of the Oslo Accords in the 1990s, negotiated between Israel and the PLO, created the Palestinian Authority to exercise partial control over parts of Palestinian territories. Tensions escalated rapidly during the second intifada, which was lasted till 2005. In 2007, internal divisions caused a civil war between Palestinian political factions led to a takeover of the Gaza Strip by Hamas during armed clashes. Israel has blockaded the territory. Since then, the West Bank has been governed in part by the Palestinian Authority, led by Fatah, while the Gaza Strip has remained under the control of Hamas.

Israel has built settlements where approximately 670,000 Israeli settlers live in settlements in the West Bank. The international community considers Israeli settlements in Palestinian territories illegal under international law, but the Israeli government disputes this. Currently, the biggest challenges to the country include the Israeli occupation, blockade, restrictions on movement, separation barriers, expansion of Israeli settlements, terrorism and settler violence, as well as an overall poor security situation. Unsolved remain the question of Palestine's borders, the legal and diplomatic status of Jerusalem, and the return of Palestinian refugees. Despite these challenges, the country remains one of the most highly-educated countries in the Arab world, maintains an emerging economy, and sees frequent tourism due to its religious significance. The country holds potential oil and gas reserves. As of 2024, Palestine is recognized as a sovereign state by 145 out of 193 member states of the United Nations. It is also a member of several international organizations, including the Arab League and the Organization of Islamic Cooperation. It has been a non-member observer state of the United Nations since 2012.

History

Early history

Canaanite and Philistine Periods. Around 3000 BCE, early settlements and civilizations emerged in the region. Abraham, the patriarch of Judaism, was believed to have lived in the region around 2000 BCE. Around 1200 BCE, Canaanite city-states and kingdoms emerged in the region. In 1175 BCE, there was a Philistine invasion and settlement along the coast. Around 1000 BCE, King David established Jerusalem as the capital of the Israelite kingdom. In the 13th century BCE, Moses led the Israelites out of Egypt during the Exodus and received the Ten Commandments at Mount Sinai. Joshua succeeded Moses as the leader of the Israelites and led the conquest of Canaan, establishing the Israelite presence in the land. The period of the Judges was, characterized by a succession of leaders who delivered the Israelites from various oppressors and ruled over different regions. In the 11th century BCE, the prophet Samuel anointed Saul as the first king of Israel, marking the transition from a tribal confederation to a centralized monarchy.

The Western Wall is the most holy site for Jews

David, a shepherd and warrior, became the second king of Israel and established Jerusalem as the capital city. Solomon, David's son, succeeded him as king and oversaw the construction of the First Temple in Jerusalem, symbolizing the centrality of worship in the Israelite kingdom. After Solomon's death, the kingdom was divided into the northern Kingdom of Israel, consisting of ten tribes, and the southern Kingdom of Judah, comprised of the tribes of Judah and Benjamin in 928 BCE. The northern Kingdom of Israel faced a series of wicked kings and fell into idolatry and moral decline, leading to its conquest by the Assyrians in 722 BCE. The southern Kingdom of Judah experienced periods of faithfulness and unfaithfulness to God, with prophets like Isaiah and Jeremiah warning of impending judgment. In 586 BCE, the Babylonians, under King Nebuchadnezzar II, destroyed Jerusalem, including the First Temple, and exiled a significant portion of the population to Babylon. In 538 BCE, following the conquest of Babylon, Cyrus the Great of Persia allowed the Jews to return to their homeland and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem. Under the leadership of Zerubbabel, the construction of the Second Temple commenced in 516 BCE, marking a significant milestone for Jewish rule in Palestine. In 332 BCE, Alexander the Great's conquest brought Palestine under Hellenistic rule, introducing Greek influence to the region. In 167 BCE, the Maccabean Revolt broke out against the Seleucid Empire's attempts to suppress Jewish religious practices, leading to the establishment of the Hasmonean dynasty. The Hasmonean dynasty ruled over an independent Jewish state in Palestine from 140 BCE to 63 BCE, with notable figures such as Judah Maccabee and John Hyrcanus.

In 63 BCE, Roman general Pompey captured Jerusalem, establishing Roman authority over Palestine. Roman rule in Palestine began in 6 CE when direct governance was implemented, appointing procurators to administer Judea. The First Jewish-Roman War erupted in 66 CE as a Jewish revolt against Roman rule, resulting in the destruction of Jerusalem's Second Temple in 70 CE. In 132 CE, the Bar Kokhba revolt, another major Jewish uprising, challenged Roman authority but was eventually suppressed in 135 CE. Roman citizenship was granted to free inhabitants of the Roman Empire, including those in Palestine, by Emperor Caracalla in 212 CE. The spread of Christianity gained momentum during Roman rule, leading to the construction of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem by Emperor Constantine in 326 CE. A devastating earthquake struck the region in 363 CE, causing significant destruction and loss of life. Palestine became a significant destination for Christian pilgrims in the 4th century as the Roman Empire underwent Christianization. Byzantine rule began to influence Palestine in the 5th century as the Roman Empire declined. Jewish communities faced restrictions and persecution under Roman rule, resulting in the diaspora and the scattering of Jewish populations throughout the empire. Tensions between the Jewish population and Roman authorities during the period of Roman rule often led to uprisings and revolts.

In 324 CE, Byzantine Emperor Constantine I declared Christianity as the official religion of the Roman Empire, laying the foundation for Byzantine rule over Palestine. Under Byzantine rule, the Council of Nicaea was convened in 325 CE to address theological disputes and establish doctrinal unity within Christianity. The construction of numerous churches and monasteries flourished in Palestine during the 4th and 5th centuries, reflecting the growing influence of Christianity. In 438 CE, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was rebuilt under the orders of Emperor Theodosius II, becoming a significant pilgrimage site. In 529 CE, Emperor Justinian I enacted a series of legal reforms known as the Corpus Juris Civilis, which had a lasting impact on Roman law and administration in Palestine. The Samaritan Revolts erupted in 529 CE and 556 CE, as the Samaritan population in Palestine rebelled against Byzantine rule. In 614 CE, the Sassanian Empire, allied with Jewish forces, invaded Palestine and briefly captured Jerusalem, causing significant damage to Christian holy sites. Byzantine Emperor Heraclius successfully recaptured Jerusalem in 629 CE, restoring Byzantine control over Palestine. Throughout Byzantine rule, Palestine experienced frequent border conflicts and raids with neighboring Arab tribes, including the Ghassanids and Lakhmids.

Middle Ages

Further information: Muslim conquest of the Levant, Rashidun Caliphate, and Umayyad Caliphate

Map of Syria and Palestine under Islamic rule during Omar

In 638, the Rashidun Caliphate, led by Caliph Umar ibn al-Khattab, conquered Jerusalem, establishing Muslim control over Palestine. The Muslim rulers implemented a system known as dhimma, granting protection to non-Muslim communities and allowing them to practice their faith. During the Umayyad Caliphate (661-750), Palestine experienced significant developments, including the construction of the Dome of the Rock in 691, which became a prominent symbol of Islamic architecture. In 715, the Umayyad Caliph al-Walid I ordered the construction of the al-Aqsa Mosque adjacent to the Dome of the Rock, further solidifying Islamic presence in Jerusalem.

Despite political tensions, Jewish and Christian communities were allowed to continue their religious practices and maintain their institutions. Throughout these caliphates, Jews, Christians, and other religious groups were generally permitted to live peacefully and practice their respective faiths, although there were occasional instances of tensions and conflicts. The policies of religious tolerance and protection varied to some extent across different caliphates and rulers, but the overall approach was one of coexistence and respect for religious diversity.

In 878, the Tulunid dynasty, a local Egyptian-based caliphate, briefly gained control over Palestine, adding a distinct chapter to the region's history. In 969, the Fatimid Caliphate, led by Caliph al-Muizz, conquered Jerusalem, ushering in a new era of Fatimid rule in Palestine. During the Fatimid period, Palestine experienced the development of institutions and architectural projects. In 1033, Cairo-born Fatimid Caliph al-Zahir ordered the construction of the northern entrance gate of the al-Aqsa Mosque, known as the Bab al-Ghawanima.

Saladin — the conqueror of Jerusalem

In 1071, the Seljuk Turks, who were aligned with the Abbasid Caliphate, gained control over Jerusalem and other parts of Palestine, marking a transition in political power. Non-Muslim communities, including Jews and Christians, enjoyed a degree of religious freedom and were often allowed to govern their internal affairs under their respective religious laws. The Fatimids promoted intellectual exchange and cultural diversity, contributing to the flourishing of various religious and scholarly activities. By the late 11th century, the Crusaders launched their campaigns, resulting in the capture of Jerusalem in 1099, effectively ending Muslim rule in Palestine until the recapture by Saladin in 1187.

In 1187, Muslim forces, led by Salah ad-Din (Saladin), liberated Jerusalem from the Crusaders, marking the end of the Crusader presence in Palestine. Under the Ayyubid dynasty, which ruled until 1250, Palestine experienced efforts to rebuild and fortify cities, including the restoration of the walls of Jerusalem. In 1250, the Mamluks, a military slave caste, seized power in Egypt and extended their rule over Palestine. They established their capital in Cairo but maintained control over the region. During the Mamluk period, Palestine witnessed the construction and restoration of numerous religious and architectural structures. In 1267, the Mamluk Sultan Baybars ordered the reconstruction of the city walls of Jerusalem and fortified other key cities in the region.

In 1291, the Mamluks successfully repelled the Crusaders' final attempt to recapture the coastal cities, solidifying Muslim control over Palestine. Throughout the Mamluk period, Palestine served as an important center for religious and scholarly activities. Mosques, madrasas (educational institutions), and caravanserais were established to support the needs of the Muslim population and travelers. In 1382, an earthquake struck the region, causing severe damage to various cities and architectural structures, including the al-Aqsa Mosque and the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem. The Mamluks faced challenges from external forces, such as Mongol invasions and conflicts with neighboring powers, including the Crusader states of Cyprus and the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. In 1488, the Mamluk Sultan Qaitbay initiated the construction of Qaitbay Citadel in Acre, further fortifying the coastal defenses of Palestine.

Ottoman Palestine

Main articles: Ottoman Palestine and Sanjak of Jerusalem

By the early 16th century, the Mamluk Sultanate faced internal conflicts and political instability. In 1516, the Mamluks were defeated by the Ottoman Empire, marking the end of their rule over Palestine. In 1516, the Ottoman Empire, led by Sultan Selim I, conquered Palestine, marking the beginning of their rule over the region. During the 16th century, the Ottomans implemented administrative reforms in Palestine, establishing a system of governance and appointing local officials known as the "sanjakbeys" to oversee various districts. In 1538, the Ottomans successfully defended Palestine against an invasion by the Portuguese navy, ensuring their control over the coastal regions.

Jerusalem in 1903, when it was under Ottoman rule

In the 17th century, Palestine witnessed the construction of several notable architectural projects. In 1620, the Ottoman governor of Jerusalem, Fakhr ad-Din, initiated the restoration of the walls of the Old City of Jerusalem. Throughout the 18th century, Palestine experienced relative stability under Ottoman rule, with the region serving as an important center for trade and religious pilgrimage. In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, Palestine underwent significant social and economic changes. The Tanzimat reforms, initiated by the Ottoman Empire, introduced modern administrative structures, education systems, and legal reforms in the region. In 1831, Palestine briefly fell under the control of Muhammad Ali Pasha of Egypt, who challenged Ottoman authority. However, Ottoman rule was restored in 1840 following the intervention of European powers.

During the early centuries of Ottoman rule, Jews in Palestine generally enjoyed a degree of religious freedom and were allowed to practice their faith. They were recognized as "People of the Book" (Ahl al-Kitab) and were granted the status of dhimmis, which provided them with certain rights and protections under Islamic law. In the 16th century, Sultan Bayezid II welcomed Jewish refugees expelled from Spain. The Tanzimat reforms initiated by the Ottoman Empire in the mid-19th century aimed to establish more equal rights for all Ottoman subjects, including Jews. These reforms brought about some improvements in the legal status and treatment of Jews, granting them more rights and opportunities for education and participation in the Ottoman administration.

During the late 19th century, Palestine witnessed an increase in Jewish immigration from Europe, driven by the Zionist movement. This influx of Jewish settlers led to tensions and conflicts with the local Arab population. In 1908, the Young Turk Revolution brought about political changes within the Ottoman Empire, aiming to modernize and centralize the administration. In 1909, tensions between Jewish and Arab communities escalated in Palestine, leading to violent clashes in several cities, including Jerusalem and Jaffa. This period saw the emergence of Arab nationalist movements advocating for greater autonomy and independence. In 1916, the Arab Revolt, led by figures such as Sharif Hussein of Mecca and T.E. Lawrence (Lawrence of Arabia), aimed to overthrow Ottoman rule in the Arabian Peninsula and Greater Syria, which included Palestine. During World War I, Palestine became a battleground between the Ottoman Empire and British forces. In 1917, British forces, led by General Allenby, captured Jerusalem, marking the end of Ottoman control over Palestine.

British Mandate

Main article: Mandatory Palestine

Deir Yassin massacre was done by Irgun and Lehi

The defeat of the Ottoman Empire in World War I resulted in the dismantling of their rule. In 1920, the League of Nations granted Britain the mandate to govern Palestine, leading to the subsequent period of British administration. In 1917, Jerusalem was captured by British forces led by General Allenby, marking the end of Ottoman rule in the city. By 1920, tensions escalated between Jewish and Arab communities, resulting in violent clashes and riots across Palestine. The League of Nations approved the British Mandate for Palestine in 1922, entrusting Britain with the administration of the region. Throughout the 1920s, Palestine experienced growing resistance from both Jewish and Arab nationalist movements, which manifested in sporadic violence and protests against British policies. In 1929, violent riots erupted in Palestine due to disputes over Jewish immigration and access to the Western Wall in Jerusalem. The 1930s witnessed the outbreak of the Arab Revolt, as Arab nationalists demanded an end to Jewish immigration and the establishment of an independent Arab state. In response to the Arab Revolt, the British deployed military forces and implemented stringent security measures in an effort to quell the uprising.

Arab nationalist groups, led by the Arab Higher Committee, called for an end to Jewish immigration and land sales to Jews. The issuance of the 1939 White Paper by the British government aimed to address escalating tensions between Arabs and Jews in Palestine. This policy document imposed restrictions on Jewish immigration and land purchases, with the intention to limit the establishment of a Jewish state. Met with strong opposition from the Zionist movement, the White Paper was perceived as a betrayal of the Balfour Declaration and Zionist aspirations for a Jewish homeland. In response to the White Paper, the Zionist community in Palestine organized a strike in 1939, rallying against the restrictions on Jewish immigration and land acquisition. This anti-White Paper strike involved demonstrations, civil disobedience, and a shutdown of businesses. Supported by various Zionist organizations, including the Jewish Agency and the Histadrut (General Federation of Jewish Labor), the anti-White Paper strike aimed to protest and challenge the limitations imposed by the British government.

In the late 1930s and 1940s, several Zionist militant groups, including the Irgun, Hagana, and Lehi, carried out acts of violence against British military and civilian targets in their pursuit of an independent Jewish state. While the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem, Haj Amin al-Husseini, collaborated with Nazi Germany during World War II, it is important to note that not all Muslims supported his actions, and there were instances where Muslims helped rescue Jews during the Holocaust. In 1946, a bombing orchestrated by the Irgun at the King David Hotel in Jerusalem resulted in the deaths of 91 people, including British officials, civilians, and hotel staff. The Exodus 1947 incident unfolded when a ship carrying Jewish Holocaust survivors, who sought refuge in Palestine, was intercepted by the British navy, leading to clashes and the eventual deportation of the refugees back to Europe.. During World War II, Palestine served as a strategically significant location for British military operations against Axis forces in North Africa. In 1947, the United Nations proposed a partition plan for Palestine, suggesting separate Jewish and Arab states, but it was rejected by Arab nations while accepted by Jewish leaders.

Wars and Occupation

Gaza in 1980

As the British Mandate expired in 1948, the State of Israel was declared, triggering the Arab-Israeli War between Israel and neighboring Arab states. In 1947, the UN adopted a partition plan for a two-state solution in the remaining territory of the mandate. The plan was accepted by the Jewish leadership but rejected by the Arab leaders, and Britain refused to implement the plan. On the eve of final British withdrawal, the Jewish Agency for Israel, headed by David Ben-Gurion, declared the establishment of the State of Israel according to the proposed UN plan.

The Arab Higher Committee did not declare a state of its own and instead, together with Transjordan, Egypt, and the other members of the Arab League of the time, commenced military action resulting in the 1948 Arab–Israeli War. During the war, Israel gained additional territories that were designated to be part of the Arab state under the UN plan. Egypt occupied the Gaza Strip, and Transjordan occupied and then annexed the West Bank. Egypt initially supported the creation of an All-Palestine Government but disbanded it in 1959. Transjordan never recognized it and instead decided to incorporate the West Bank with its own territory to form Jordan. The annexation was ratified in 1950 but was rejected by the international community.

In 1964, when the West Bank was controlled by Jordan, the Palestine Liberation Organization was established there with the goal to confront Israel. The Palestinian National Charter of the PLO defines the boundaries of Palestine as the whole remaining territory of the mandate, including Israel. The Six-Day War in 1967, when Israel fought against Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, ended with Israel occupying the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, besides other territories.^{[better source needed]} Following the Six-Day War, the PLO moved to Jordan, from where they started their operations on Israeli target. This escalated tensions between Jordanians and Palestine which came out as a civil war, also known as the "Black September". Later the PLO relocated to Lebanon in 1971.^{[better source needed]}

The October 1974 Arab League summit designated the PLO as the "sole legitimate representative of the Palestinian people" and reaffirmed "their right to establish an independent state of urgency." In November 1974, the PLO was recognized as competent on all matters concerning the question of Palestine by the UN General Assembly granting them observer status as a "non-state entity" at the UN. Through the Camp David Accords of 1979, Egypt signaled an end to any claim of its own over the Gaza Strip. In July 1988, Jordan ceded its claims to the West Bank—with the exception of guardianship over Haram al-Sharif—to the PLO. PLO continued attacking Israel from southern Lebanon, which intitiated an insurgency in south of Lebanon and turned into a civil war. Israel invaded Lebanon in 1982 and threw PLO forces out of the country. Then the PLO moved to Tunisia.

After Israel captured and occupied the West Bank from Jordan and Gaza Strip from Egypt, it began to establish Israeli settlements there. Administration of the Arab population of these territories was performed by the Israeli Civil Administration of the Coordinator of Government Activities in the Territories and by local municipal councils present since before the Israeli takeover. In 1980, Israel decided to freeze elections for these councils and to establish instead Village Leagues, whose officials were under Israeli influence. Later this model became ineffective for both Israel and the Palestinians, and the Village Leagues began to break up, with the last being the Hebron League, dissolved in February 1988.

Declaration, uprising and peace treaty

Main articles: Palestinian Declaration of Independence, First Intifada, and Oslo Years

The First Intifada broke out in 1987, characterized by widespread protests, strikes, and acts of civil disobedience by Palestinians in the Gaza Strip and the West Bank against Israeli occupation. In 1988, the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), led by Yasser Arafat, declared the establishment of an independent Palestinian state with East Jerusalem as its capital, earning international recognition. Violent clashes between Palestinian protesters and Israeli forces intensified throughout 1989, resulting in a significant loss of life and escalating tensions in the occupied territories. 1990 witnessed the imposition of strict measures by the Israeli government, including curfews and closures, in an attempt to suppress the Intifada and maintain control over the occupied territories.

Intifada in Gaza

The 1990–1991 Gulf War brought increased international attention to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, leading to heightened diplomatic efforts to find a peaceful resolution. Saddam Hussein was a supporter of Palestinian cause and won support from Arafat during the war. Following the invasion of Kuwait, Saddam surprised the international community by presenting a peace offer to Israel and withdrawing Iraqi forces from Kuwait, in exchange of withdrawal from the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, East Jerusalem and Golan Heights. Though the peace offer was rejected, Saddam then ordered firing of scud missiles into Israeli territory. This movement was supported by Palestinians. The war also led expulsion of Palestinians from Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, as their government supported Iraq.

In 1993, the Oslo Accords were signed between Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), leading to the establishment of the Palestinian Authority (PA) and a potential path to peace. Yasser Arafat was elected as president of the newly formed Palestinian Authority in 1994, marking a significant step towards self-governance.

Yasser Arafat

Israel acknowledged the PLO negotiating team as "representing the Palestinian people", in return for the PLO recognizing Israel's right to exist in peace, acceptance of UN Security Council resolutions 242 and 338, and its rejection of "violence and terrorism". As a result, in 1994 the PLO established the Palestinian National Authority (PNA or PA) territorial administration, that exercises some governmental functions in parts of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. As envisioned in the Oslo Accords, Israel allowed the PLO to establish interim administrative institutions in the Palestinian territories, which came in the form of the PNA. It was given civilian control in Area B and civilian and security control in Area A, and remained without involvement in Area C.

Civil unrest in Jerusalem as a result of 1994 massacre

The peace process gained opposition from both Palestinians and Israelis. Islamist militant organizations such as Hamas and Islamic Jihad opposed the attack and responded by conducting attacks on civilians across Israel. In 1994, Baruch Goldstein, an Israeli extremist shot 29 people to death in Hebron, known as the Cave of the Patriarchs massacre. These events led an increase in Palestinian opposition to the peace process. Tragically, in 1995, Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin was assassinated by Yigal Amir — an extremist, causing political instability in the region.

The first-ever Palestinian general elections took place in 1996, resulting in Arafat's re-election as president and the formation of a Palestinian Legislative Council. Initiating the implementation of the Oslo Accords, Israel began redeploying its forces from select Palestinian cities in the West Bank in 1997. Negotiations between Israel and the Palestinian Authority continued, albeit with slow progress and contentious debates on Jerusalem, settlements, and refugees in 1998. In 1997, Israeli government led by Benjamin Netanyahu and the Palestinian government signed the Hebron Protocol, which outlined the redeployment of Israeli forces from parts of Hebron in the West Bank, granting the government greater control over the city. Israel and the Palestinian government signed the Wye River Memorandum in 1998, aiming to advance the implementation of the Oslo Accords. The agreement included provisions for Israeli withdrawals and security cooperation.

The period of Oslo Years, brought a great prosperity to the government-controlled areas, despite some economic issues. The Palestinian Authority built country's second airport in Gaza, after the Jerusalem International Airport. Inaugural ceremony of the airport was attended by Bill Clinton and Nelson Mandela. In 1999, Ehud Barak assumed the position of Israeli Prime Minister, renewing efforts to reach a final status agreement with the Palestinians. The Camp David Summit in 2000 aimed to resolve the remaining issues but concluded without a comprehensive agreement, serving as a milestone in the peace process.

Second Intifada and civil war

Main articles: Second Intifada, Death of Yasser Arafat, and Assassination of Ahmad Yassin

Civil unrest in Hebron

In 2000, tensions escalated when Ariel Sharon, then leader of the Likud Party, visited the Temple Mount (Haram al-Sharif), leading to widespread protests and clashes between Palestinians and Israeli security forces. Camp David Summit took place, with Ehud Barak, Yasser Arafat, and Bill Clinton in attendance. Disagreements over the issues of Jerusalem, borders, and the right of return for Palestinian refugees proved insurmountable. Following the failure of the Camp David Summit in 2000, tensions between Israelis and Palestinians escalated dramatically. Despite extensive negotiations, the summit failed to reach a final agreement, leading to increased tensions and setting the stage for the outbreak of the Second Intifada. In September 2000, the Second Intifada, also known as the Al-Aqsa Intifada, erupted. The year 2001 saw a wave of suicide bombings by Palestinian militant groups targeting Israeli civilians, resulting in a surge of casualties on both sides.

The Church of the Nativity was sieged by Israeli army in 2002

Efforts to revive the peace process continued, including the convening of the Taba Summit in January 2001. Although progress was made, negotiations eventually broke down due to the escalating violence and political changes in both Israeli and Palestinian leadership. Gaza International Airport was destroyed in an airstrike by Israeli army in 2001 and Jerusalem International Airport got closed due to violence across Jerusalem. The Church of the Nativity was besieged by Israeli army in 2002, as a part of its Operation Defensive Shield. During the Second Intifada, there were numerous incidents of targeted assassinations, suicide bombings, artillery shelling, and clashes between Israeli forces and Palestinian militants.

In response to the violence, Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield in 2002, conducting large-scale military operations in Palestinian cities to dismantle militant infrastructures. Throughout 2003, the construction of the Israeli West Bank barrier intensified, leading to increased restrictions on the movement of Palestinians and exacerbating tensions. Hamas co-founder Ahmed Yassin was assassinated and Yasser Arafat died in France. Arafat was succeeded by Mahmoud Abbas. The year 2005 marked the Israeli disengagement from the Gaza Strip, with Israeli forces withdrawing and dismantling Israeli settlements in the area.

Efforts to mediate a ceasefire and resume peace negotiations were ongoing throughout this period. International actors, including the United States, the United Nations, and the European Union, made attempts to broker a truce and revive the peace process. However, these efforts faced significant challenges, including the deep-seated distrust, the escalation of violence, and the inability to address the core issues of the conflict. During this period, international efforts to revive the peace process gained momentum. The Quartet on the Middle East, consisting of the United States, the European Union, Russia, and the United Nations, proposed the Roadmap for Peace in 2003, which was attended by George W. Bush, Ariel Sharon and Mahmoud Abbas. The roadmap outlined a series of steps towards the establishment of an independent Palestinian state alongside a secure Israel. However, the implementation of the roadmap faced significant challenges, and progress remained limited.

In 2005, Sharon government led withdrawal of Israel completely from the Gaza Strip. The second intifada was ended in 2005. Though the actual event which ended it remains disputed. Some argue that Israel's withdrawal from Gaza, while others refer peace talks to be the moment which stopped the uprising. Yasser Arafat died in 2004, was succeeded by Mahmoud Abbas. Israel withdrew completely from the Gaza Strip and it came under full Palestinian control. In 2006, Hamas won in Palestinian Legislative elections. This led a political standoff with the Fatah party. The power struggle eventually escalated into armed clashes and caused a civil war. It resulted in a split between the West Bank, governed by Fatah and the Palestinian Authority, and the Gaza Strip, controlled by Hamas.

Hamas gained more freedom for its military practice. In 2006, Hamas kidnapped Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit via tunnel, whom the group traded in 2011 for 1,027 prisoners held in Israel. Israel has since developed strong technology and tactics to find and neutralize attack tunnels.

Post intifada and civil war

Since 2001, Hamas and several other militant groups have launched rocket into Israeli territory. Feared by future attacks, Israeli government have imposed a blockade in Gaza since 2007. The movement of goods, water and electricity is all controlled by Israel. While internal governance is still in hands of Hamas. This gave birth to a new conflict, which is between Hamas controlled Gaza and the Israeli forces. Hamas have launched several missiles into Israel, which caused retaliation operations by Israeli army and resulted death of a large number of Gazan civilians. Between 2008 to 2009, an armed conflict took place between Hamas and Israel Defense Force. Known as the "Gaza Massacre" or "Battle of al-Furqan, resulted in 1,166–1,417 Palestinian and 13 Israeli deaths. Israel claimed it as a response to ongoing rocket fire on the western Negev.

IDF forces launched a large-scale military operation in the Gaza Strip in response to Palestinian militants firing over a hundred rockets from the Gaza Strip into southern Israel beginning on 10 November 2012. It lasted for four weeks and 158 Palestinians were killed. In 2021, tensions between Israel and Palestine increased. Began with eviction of Palestinian families from East Jerusalem, it escalated into a crisis, which includes — airstrikes on the Gaza Strip, rocket attacks launched by Hamas and PIJ, riots and police suppression and protests. It came to an end, when an effective permanent ceasefire was declared. On 7th October 2023, Hamas launched a surprise attack on southern Israel by rocket attacks and entering into Israeli territory. Around 1,200 civilians were killed and 250 people were taken as hostage and held captive in Gaza. Hamas claimed this attack as a response to Ramadan clashes on Al-Aqsa Mosque. Israel declared war on Gaza. The war have so far killed more than 30,000 peoples in the territory.

A modern day city scene across Jerusalem, with view of Temple Mount and Al Aqsa

Post Arafat

Internal divisions between the two main Palestinian political factions, Fatah and Hamas, intensified during this period. In 2006, Hamas won a majority in the Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) elections, leading to a political standoff with Fatah. The power struggle eventually escalated into armed clashes, which turned into a civil war in Gaza and caused more than 100 deaths. It resulted in a split between the West Bank, governed by Fatah and the Palestinian Authority, and the Gaza Strip, controlled by Hamas.

The division between the West Bank and Gaza complicated efforts to achieve Palestinian unity and negotiate a comprehensive peace agreement with Israel. Multiple rounds of reconciliation talks were held, but no lasting agreement was reached. The division also hindered the establishment of a unified Palestinian state and led to different governance structures and policies in the two territories. Throughout this period, there were sporadic outbreaks of violence and tensions between Palestinians and Israelis. Since 2001, Incidents of rocket attacks from Gaza into Israeli territory and Israeli military operations in response often resulted in casualties and further strained the situation. Following the inter-Palestinian conflict in 2006, Hamas took over control of the Gaza Strip (it already had majority in the PLC), and Fatah took control of the West Bank. From 2007, the Gaza Strip was governed by Hamas, and the West Bank by the Fatah party led Palestinian Authority. International efforts to revive the peace process continued. The United States, under the leadership of different administrations, made various attempts to broker negotiations between Israel and the Palestinians. However, significant obstacles such as settlement expansion, the status of Jerusalem, borders, and the right of return for Palestinian refugees, remained unresolved. In recent years, diplomatic initiatives have emerged, including the normalization agreements between Israel and several Arab states, known as the Abraham Accords. These agreements, while not directly addressing the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, have reshaped regional dynamics and raised questions about the future of Palestinian aspirations for statehood. The status quo remains challenging for Palestinians, with ongoing issues of occupation, settlement expansion, restricted movement, and economic hardships. Efforts to find a just and lasting solution to the Israeli-Palestinian conflict continue, but the path towards a comprehensive peace agreement and the establishment of a viable, independent Palestinian state remains uncertain.

History

Second intifada and civil war

Main articles: Second Intifada and Palestinian Civil War

Civil unrest in Hebron

A peace summit between Yasser Arafat and Ehud Barak was mediated by Bill Clinton in 2000. It was supposed to be the final agreement ending conflict officially forever. However the agreement failed to address the Palestinian refugee issues, status of Jerusalem and Israeli security concerns. Both sides blamed each other of the summit failures. This became of the main triggers for the uprising that would happen next. In September 2000, then opposition leader from the Likud Party – Ariel Sharon made a proactive visit to the Temple Mount and delivered a controversial speech, which angered Palestinian Jerusalemite. The tensions escalated into riots. Bloody clashes took place around Jerusalem. Escalating violence resulted closure of Jerusalem Airport, which haven't operated till date. More and more riots between Jews and Arabs took place in October 2000 in Israel.

The Church of the Nativity under siege in 2002

In the same month, two Israeli soldiers were lynched and killed in Ramallah. Between November and December clashes between Palestinians and Israelis increased further. In 2001 Taba summit was held between Israel and Palestine. But the summit failed to implement and Ariel Sharon became prime minister in the 2001 elections. By 2001, attacks from Palestinian militant groups towards Israel increased. Gaza Airport was destroyed in an airstrike by Israeli army in 2001, claiming itself in retaliation to previous attacks by Hamas. In January 2002, the IDF Shayetet 13 naval commandos captured the Karine A, a freighter carrying weapons from Iran towards Israel. UNSC Resolution 1397 was passed, which reaffirmed a Two-state solution and laid the groundwork for a Road map for peace. An another attack by Hamas left 30 people killed in Netanya. A peace summit was organized by the Arab Leauge in Beirut, which was endorsed by Arafat and virtually ignored by Israel.

In 2002, Israel launched Operation Defensive Shield after the Passover massacre. Heavy fighting between IDF and Palestinian fighters took place in Jenin. The Church of the Nativity was besieged by the IDF for one week until successful negotiations took place, which resulted withdrawal of the Israeli troops from the church. Between 2003 and 2004, people from Qawasameh tribe in Hebron were either killed or blew themselves in suicide bombing. Ariel Sharon ordered construction of barriers across Palestinian controlled areas and Israeli settlements in the West Bank to prevent future attacks. Saddam Hussein provided financial support to Palestinian militants from Iraq during the intifada period, from 2000 until his overthrew in 2003. A peace proposal was made in 2003,which was supported by Arafat and rejected by Sharon. In 2004 Hamas leader and its co-founder Ahmed Yassin was assassinated by the Israeli army in Gaza. Yasser Arafat was confined to his headquarters in Ramallah. On 11 November, Yasser Arafat died in Paris.

On first week of 2005, Mahmoud Abbas was elected as the president of the State of Palestine. In 2005, Israel completely withdrew from the Gaza Strip by destroying its settlements over there. By 2005, the situation began de-escalating. In 2006, Hamas won in Palestinian legislative elections. This led a political standoff with Fatah. Armed clashes took place across both the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. The clashes turned into a civil war, which ended in a bloody clashes on the Gaza Strip. As a result Hamas gained control allover the territory of Gaza. Hundreds of people were killed in the civil war, including militants and civilians. Since then Hamas gained more independence in its military practices. Since 2007, Israel is leading a partial blockade on Gaza. An another peace summit was organized by the Arab League in 2007, with same offer which was presented in 2002 summit. However the peace process could not progressed.

Aftermath of civil war and intifada

Salam Fayyad became prime minister of the country in 2008 and instituted socio–economic reforms, which shows sign of recovery. Attacks from Gaza by militant factions continued, which are retaliated by Israeli army. Hamas have launched several missiles into Israel, which caused retaliation operations by Israeli army and resulted death of a large number of Gazan civilians. Between 2008 to 2009, an armed conflict took place between Hamas and Israel Defense Force. Known as the "Gaza Massacre" or "Battle of al-Furqan, resulted in 1,166–1,417 Palestinian and 13 Israeli deaths. Israel claimed it as a response to ongoing rocket fire on the western Negev. In 2006, Hamas kidnapped Israeli soldier Gilad Shalit via tunnel, whom the group traded in 2011 for 1,027 prisoners held in Israel.

IDF forces launched a large-scale military operation in the Gaza Strip in response to Palestinian militants firing over a hundred rockets from the Gaza Strip into southern Israel beginning on 10 November 2012. It lasted for four weeks and 158 Palestinians were killed. In 2021, tensions between Israel and Palestine increased. Began with eviction of Palestinian families from East Jerusalem, it escalated into a crisis, which includes — airstrikes on the Gaza Strip, rocket attacks launched by Hamas and PIJ, riots and police suppression and protests. It came to an end, when an effective permanent ceasefire was declared. On 7th October 2023, Hamas launched a surprise attack on southern Israel by rocket attacks and entering into Israeli territory. Around 1,200 civilians were killed and 250 people were taken as hostage and held captive in Gaza. Hamas claimed this attack as a response to Ramadan clashes on Al-Aqsa Mosque. Israel declared war on Gaza. The war have so far killed more than 30,000 peoples in the territory.

Geography

Government

Main articles: Government of Palestine and Politics of Palestine

Mausoleum of Yasser Arafat at Mukataa, Ramallah

Mahmoud Abbas President

Mohammad Mustafa Prime Minister

Palestine is a semi-presidential country. The country consists of the institutions that are associated with the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO), which includes President of the State of Palestine – appointed by the Palestinian Central Council, Palestinian National Council – the legislature that established the State of Palestine and Executive Committee of the Palestine Liberation Organization – performs the functions of a government in exile, maintaining an extensive foreign-relations network. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) is combination of several political parties and militant organizations.

These should be distinguished from the President of the Palestinian National Authority, Palestinian Legislative Council (PLC) and PNA Cabinet, all of which are instead associated with the Palestinian National Authority. The State of Palestine's founding document is the Palestinian Declaration of Independence, and it should be distinguished from the unrelated PLO Palestinian National Covenant and PNA Palestine Basic Law. The Palestinian Authority functions within the framework of a semi-presidential multi-party republic. It have a legislative council, an executive president, and a prime minister leading the cabinet. The government of Palestine is divided into two political entities. The Fatah-controlled internationally recognized interim authority which governs the West Bank. While Gaza Strip is under the control of Hamas. According to Freedom House, the PNA governs Palestine in an authoritarian manner, including by repressing activists and journalists critical of the government.

International Recognition and Status

Main articles: Legal status of the State of Palestine and Palestine and the United Nations

The State of Palestine has been recognized by 143 of the 193 UN members and since 2012 has had a status of a non-member observer state in the United Nations. On 29 November 2012, in a 138–9 vote (with 41 abstentions and 5 absences), the United Nations General Assembly passed resolution 67/19, upgrading Palestine from an "observer entity" to a "non-member observer state" within the United Nations System, which was described as recognition of the PLO's sovereignty. Palestine's new status is equivalent to that of the Holy See. The UN has permitted Palestine to title its representative office to the UN as "The Permanent Observer Mission of the State of Palestine to the United Nations", and Palestine has instructed its diplomats to officially represent "The State of Palestine"—no longer the Palestinian National Authority. On 17 December 2012, UN Chief of Protocol Yeocheol Yoon declared that "the designation of 'State of Palestine' shall be used by the Secretariat in all official United Nations documents", thus recognising the title 'State of Palestine' as the state's official name for all UN purposes; on 21 December 2012, a UN memorandum discussed appropriate terminology to be used following GA 67/19. It was noted therein that there was no legal impediment to using the designation Palestine to refer to the geographical area of the Palestinian territory. At the same time, it was explained that there was also no bar to the continued use of the term "Occupied Palestinian Territory including East Jerusalem" or such other terminology as might customarily be used by the Assembly.

As of 4 April 2024, 140 (72.5%) of the 193 member states of the United Nations have recognised the State of Palestine. Many of the countries that do not recognise the State of Palestine nevertheless recognise the PLO as the "representative of the Palestinian people". The PLO's Executive Committee is empowered by the Palestinian National Council to perform the functions of government of the State of Palestine. On 2 April 2024, Riyad Mansour, the Palestinian ambassador to the UN, requested that the Security Council consider a renewed application for membership, supported by the 22-nation Arab Group at the United Nations, the 57-nation Organization of Islamic Cooperation, and the 120-member Nonaligned Movement. As of April, seven of the council's 15 members recognize the state of Palestine but the US has indicated that it opposes the request and in addition, US law stipulates that US funding for the UN would be cut off in the event of full recognition without an Israeli-Palestinian agreement. On 18 April, the US vetoed a widely supported UN resolution that would have admitted Palestine as a full UN member

There are a wide variety of views regarding the status of the State of Palestine, both among the states of the international community and among legal scholars. The existence of a state of Palestine, although controversial, is a reality in the opinions of the states that have established bilateral diplomatic relations. In August 2015, Palestine's representatives at the UN presented a draft resolution that would allow the non-member observer states Palestine and the Holy See to raise their flags at the United Nations headquarters. Initially, the Palestinians presented their initiative as a joint effort with the Holy See, which the Holy See denied. In a letter to the Secretary General and the President of the General Assembly, Israel's Ambassador at the UN Ron Prosor called the step "another cynical misuse of the UN ... in order to score political points". After the vote, which was passed by 119 votes to 8 with 45 countries abstaining, the US Ambassador Samantha Power said that "raising the Palestinian flag will not bring Israelis and Palestinians any closer together". US Department of State spokesman Mark Toner called it a "counterproductive" attempt to pursue statehood claims outside of a negotiated settlement. At the ceremony itself, UN Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon said the occasion was a "day of pride for the Palestinian people around the world, a day of hope", and declared "Now is the time to restore confidence by both Israelis and Palestinians for a peaceful settlement and, at last, the realization of two states for two peoples".

Military

Palestine Liberation Army, military wing of the PLO was largely active before Oslo Accords. However, since the 1993—1995 peace agreements, the military have been largely inactive. Under the Oslo accords Palestine Security Services was formed, which consists of several other forces. As per the agreements, their function is limited to maintain law and order in the government-controlled area, rather than military defense. There are many militant organizations across the country, which have been operational. The largest among them is Hamas.

Hamas have its own military wing known as Al-Qassam Brigades, is considered to be more powerful and influential than the PSS. It is supported by Iran, Turkey, Syria and Qatar. Iran and Hezbollah have been involved in smuggling weapons to Hamas, both overland through routes such as Sinai via Sudan and Libya, as well as by sea. This has allowed Hamas to access a significant quantity of weapons. Hamas has been able to organize regional units, with some as large as brigades containing 2,500-3,500 fighters each. This indicates a level of organization and command structure within the group.

Presence of Hamas have developed domestic weapons production industry in Palestine. With the help of Iran, Hamas manufactures several weapons, including missiles, rockets, RPGs and drones.

Military

Main articles: Military of Palestine and Palestinian fedayeen

25th anniversary of Hamas taking place in Gaza

The Palestine Security Forces were established in the Oslo Accords, as a protective force for Palestinians. Their function is limited only to maintain law and order in the PA-controlled areas, rather than military defense. Palestine Liberation Army is the military wing of the PLO, which have been inactive since 1993 peace agreement. The military wing of Hamas — Al-Qassam Brigades considers itself as an independent force, which is more powerful and influential than PSF, along with other militant organizations such as Islamic Jihad (Al-Quds Bridage). It is a guerilla army, which is supported by Iran, Qatar and Turkey. According to the CIA World Factbook, the Qassam Brigades have 20,000 to 25,000 members, although this number is disputed. Israel’s 2005 withdrawal from Gaza provided Hamas with the opportunity to develop its military wing.

Iran and Hezbollah have smuggled weapons to Hamas overland through Sinai via Sudan and Libya, as well as by sea. Intensive military training and accumulated weapons have allowed Hamas to gradually organize regional units as large as brigades containing 2,500-3,500 fighters each. Joint exercises since 2020 (such as this one) conducted with other Gazan armed factions like the Palestinian Islamic Jihad ({IJ) have habituated units to operating in a coordinated fashion, supported Hamas command and control, and facilitated cooperation between Hamas and smaller factions. Such efforts began in earnest once Hamas seized power in the Gaza Strip in 2007.

Iran has since supplied materiel and know-how for Hamas to build a sizable rocket arsenal, with more than 10,000 rockets and mortar shells fired in the current conflict. With Iran’s help, Hamas has developed a robust domestic rocket-making industry that uses pipes, electrical wiring, and other everyday materials for improvised production. Hamas and other Gazan armed factions have terrorized Israeli population centers with rocket attacks, forcing border communities into bomb shelters for significant stretches and drawing the IDF into major conflicts in Gaza in 2008-2009, 2012, 2014, and 2021. Although Israel’s Iron Dome air defense system has complicated rocket attacks due to its 90% interception rate, Hamas’s rockets, together with incendiary balloons, fire-bearing kites, and kamikaze drones, have been a crucial feature of the group’s arsenal.

Militant tunnel-digging in Gaza dates back to 1967 at least, and Hamas has drawn on this tradition and Hezbollah’s tunneling techniques on the Israel-Lebanon border to bolster its capabilities. Extensive tunnel networks conceal and cover Hamas assets from air attack while attack tunnels aid infiltration into Israel.

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Furthermore, Hamas has probed the Gaza border fence directly with its 2018 “Great March of Return" riots, dubbed by Hamas and organizers as demonstrations meant to draw international attention to the plight of the Palestinians. The weekly protests mobilized tens of thousands of Gazans on the border with Israel; terrorist operatives with Molotov cocktails, firearms, and other weapons were embedded in crowds of civilians, whom Hamas sometimes encouraged to deploy burning tires and incendiary kites. Some also tried to infiltrate into Israel. Dozens, including civilians, died as the IDF responded, giving Hamas a propaganda victory. This is also an example of how Hamas uses civilians as human shields to cover its terrorist activities while observing how Israel responds to its provocations.

The Palestine Security Forces were established in the Oslo Accords, as a protective force for Palestinians. Their function is limited only to maintain law and order in the PA-controlled areas, rather than military defense. Al-Qassam Brigades, the military wing of Hamas considers itself as an independent force, which is more powerful and influential than PSF, along with other militant organizations such as Islamic Jihad (Al-Quds Bridage). It is a guerilla army, which is funded by Iran, Qatar and Turkey.

According to the CIA World Factbook, the Qassam Brigades have 20,000 to 25,000 members, although this number is disputed. Israel’s 2005 withdrawal from Gaza provided Hamas with the opportunity to develop its military wing.

Palestine Liberation Army is the military wing of the PLO, which have been inactive since 1993 peace agreement.

Disputes

The 1947 partition plan by the United Nations was rejected by the Arabs, who considers Israel to be an illegitimate state.

Foreign

Iran, Turkey and Qatar are the closest ally, specially for Hamas. As these countries provide all military and financial support to them. Iraq remained as one of the biggest supporter of Palestine in its conflict with Israel, when it was under the rule of Saddam Hussein.

Foreign Relations

Then president of India Pranab Mukherjee at Al-Quds University, Jerusalem in 2016

The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) represents the State of Palestine and maintains embassies in countries that recognize it. It also participates in international organizations as a member, associate, or observer. In some cases, due to conflicting sources, it is difficult to determine if the participation is on behalf of the State of Palestine, the PLO as a non-state entity, or the Palestinian National Authority.

A majority of Arab and Muslim countries, including Algeria, Bahrain, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Lebanon, Morocco, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Yemen have supported the country, due to religious and cultural relations. Egypt and Jordan, apart from supporting, have also signed peace treaties with Israel. Egypt and Qatar acts as a mediator between Hamas controlled Gaza and Israel. India was once a strong ally of Palestine, but its relations decreased, following economic collaboration with Israel. Though India still respects the Palestinian statehood movement, coexisting with Israel.

In 1988, the State of Palestine's declaration of independence was acknowledged by the General Assembly with Resolution 43/177. In 2012, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 67/19, granting Palestine "non-member observer state" status, effectively recognizing it as a sovereign state. Sweden took a significant step in 2013 by upgrading the status of the Palestinian representative office to a full embassy. They became the first EU member state outside the former communist bloc to officially recognize the state of Palestine.

In January 2015, the International Criminal Court affirmed Palestine's "State" status after its UN observer recognition. The Vatican shifted recognition to the State of Palestine in May 2015, following the 2012 UN vote. This change aligned with the Holy See's evolving position. In December 2015, the UN General Assembly passed a resolution demanding Palestinian sovereignty over natural resources in the occupied territories. It called on Israel to cease exploitation and damage while granting Palestinians the right to seek restitution. Currently, 139 UN member states (72%) recognize the State of Palestine. Though some do not recognize it, they acknowledge the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people. The PLO's executive committee acts as the government, empowered by the PNC. Palestine is a member of the United Nations, the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation, the Arab League, the G77, the International Olympic Committee and the Union for the Mediterranean.

Military

Main article: Military of Palestine

25th anniversary of Hamas taking place in Gaza

The Palestinian Security Services consists of the armed forces and intelligence agencies, which were established during the Oslo Accords. Their function is to maintain internal security and enforce law in the PA-controlled areas. It dosen't operate as an independent armed force of a country. Before the Oslo Accords, the PLO led armed rebellion against Israel, which included coalition of militant groups and included its own military branch – the Palestine Liberation Army. However since the 1993–1995 agreements, it has been inactive and operates only in Syria. Palestinian fedayeen are the Palestinian militants and guerilla army. They are considered as "freedom fighter" by Palestinians and "terrorists" by Israelis. Hamas considers itself as an independent force, which is more powerful and influential than PSF, along with other militant organizations such as Islamic Jihad (Al-Quds Bridage). It is a guerilla army, which is supported by Iran, Qatar and Turkey. According to the CIA World Factbook, the Qassam Brigades have 20,000 to 25,000 members, although this number is disputed. Israel’s 2005 withdrawal from Gaza provided Hamas with the opportunity to develop its military wing.

Iran and Hezbollah have smuggled weapons to Hamas overland through Sinai via Sudan and Libya, as well as by sea. Intensive military training and accumulated weapons have allowed Hamas to gradually organize regional units as large as brigades containing 2,500-3,500 fighters each. Joint exercises since 2020 (such as this one) conducted with other Gazan armed factions like the Palestinian Islamic Jihad ({IJ) have habituated units to operating in a coordinated fashion, supported Hamas command and control, and facilitated cooperation between Hamas and smaller factions. Such efforts began in earnest once Hamas seized power in the Gaza Strip in 2007. Iran has since supplied materiel and know-how for Hamas to build a sizable rocket arsenal, with more than 10,000 rockets and mortar shells fired in the current conflict. With Iran’s help, Hamas has developed a robust domestic rocket-making industry that uses pipes, electrical wiring, and other everyday materials for improvised production.

Hamas and other Gazan armed factions have terrorized Israeli population centers with rocket attacks, forcing border communities into bomb shelters for significant stretches and drawing the IDF into major conflicts in Gaza in 2008-2009, 2012, 2014, and 2021. Although Israel’s Iron Dome air defense system has complicated rocket attacks due to its 90% interception rate, Hamas’s rockets, together with incendiary balloons, fire-bearing kites, and kamikaze drones, have been a crucial feature of the group’s arsenal. Militant tunnel-digging in Gaza dates back to 1967 at least, and Hamas has drawn on this tradition and Hezbollah’s tunneling techniques on the Israel-Lebanon border to bolster its capabilities. Extensive tunnel networks conceal and cover Hamas assets from air attack while attack tunnels aid infiltration into Israel.

Territorial dispute

The partition plan proposed the division of Palestinian region into two separate Arab and Jewish state. It granted 55% of the land to the Jews, who were 35% of then Palestine's population and remaining land to Arabs, who were in majority.

Foreign relations

Main article: Foreign relations of the State of Palestine

Foreign relations are maintained in the framework of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) represents the State of Palestine and maintains embassies in countries that recognize it. The PLO also participates in international organizations as a member, associate, or observer. In some cases, due to conflicting sources, it is difficult to determine if the participation is on behalf of the State of Palestine, the PLO as a non-state entity, or the Palestinian National Authority (PNA).

Indian prime minister Narendra Modi with President Mahmoud Abbas in at Ramallah

In 1988, the State of Palestine's declaration of independence was acknowledged by the General Assembly with Resolution 43/177. In 2012, the United Nations General Assembly passed Resolution 67/19, granting Palestine "non-member observer state" status, effectively recognizing it as a sovereign state. Currently, 139 UN member states (72%) recognize the State of Palestine. Though some do not recognize it, they acknowledge the PLO as the representative of the Palestinian people. The PLO's executive committee acts as the government, empowered by the PNC. It is full-time member of the Arab League, the Organization of Islamic Cooperation and the Union for the Mediterranean.

Members of the Arab League and member of the Organization of Islamic Cooperation have strongly supported the country's position in its conflict with Israel. Iran have been strongest ally of Palestine since the Islamic revolution and provide military support to Palestinian fedayeen and militant groups including Hamas, through its axis of resistance, which includes military coalition of governments and rebels from Iraq, Syria, Lebanon and Yemen. Before emergence of Iranian-backed group, Iraq was a strong supporter of Palestine when it was under the Ba'athist government of Saddam. Turkey is a supporter of Hamas and Qatar has been a key-financial supporter and host leaders of Hamas. India was the first non-Arab country to reject the UN partition plan and officially recognized the statehood declaration. Once a strong ally of Palestine, India have strengthen its ties with Israel since 1991. However India still supports the legitimacy of Palestine's issue.

Muammar Gaddafi of Libya was also a supporter of Palestinian independence and was sought mediator in the Arab–Israeli conflict, when he presented a one-state peace offer titled Isratin in 2000. Relations with the United Arab Emirates deteriorated, when it signed normalization agreement with Israel. During the Sri Lankan Civil War, the PLO provided training for Tamil rebels to fight against the Sri Lankan government. The Republic of Ireland, Venezuela and South Africa are political allies of Palestine and have strongly advocated for establishment of independent Palestine. As a result of the ongoing war, support for the country have increased. Since Israel's invasion of Gaza, many countries in support of Palestinians have officially recognized the country. This includes Armenia, Spain, Norway and Trinidad and Tobago.

Economy

35% of the GDP is comes from the Jerusalem metropolitan area

Despite facing challenges due to ongoing occupation and conflict, the country has an emerging economy. This is due to the large educated population of Palestine. Palestine's economy is heavily contributed by international aid and remittances sent by the Palestinian diaspora living in the Middle East and the Gulf countries. The country's total GDP stood at US$40 billion. The CO2 Emission (metric tons per capita) was 0.6 in 2010. According to a survey of 2011, Palestine's poverty rate was 25.8%. According to a new World Bank report, Palestinian economic growth is expected to soften in 2023. The economy of Palestine relies heavily on international aids, remittances by overseas Palestinians and local industries. The International Monetary Fund have designated Palestine as a middle-income/developing country. In 2020, the inflation rate of -0.7% and unemployment rate was 25.9%. While exports were recorded at US$ 1 billion, with an import value of US$ 6 billion. Contributors to the national economy is service sector (47%), wholesale and repair (19%), manufacturing (12%), agriculture (7%), finance and banking (3%), construction (5%), information technology (5%) and transportation sector (2%).

An industrial area near Rawabi viewed from Ateret

Since 1970s, a large number of Palestinians began working in Israel and contributed to the economy by remittances. During those times the Palestinian economic growth rate were higher than majority of Arab states. The period known as Oslo Years, brought relative prosperity to the Palestinian Authority, despite facing political challenges. A large number of investments were made in the country and many new establishments were founded including the Gaza International Airport and Bethlehem Convention Palace. The new seaport in collaboration with France and the Netherlands was under construction. This growth was interrupted in the second intifada, which destroyed Palestinian infrastructure. Gaza Airport and Jerusalem Airport ceased operation and the under-construction port was destroyed by Israel in 2000. The Gaza Strip has been affected by the 2007 civil war and blockade led by Israel. Since 2008, the revival began with an economic boom in the West Bank and slight recovery in Gaza. The revival period begin with massive construction of shopping malls, luxury hotels and technology parks. In the mid-2000s technology industry began developing, which also helped in improving the economy.

The total foreign direct investment in resident enterprises in Palestine amounted to $1.732 billion at the end of 2019, a survey issued yesterday found. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) and the Palestine Monetary Authority (PMA), Palestinian investments abroad surpassed foreign investment in Palestine by $1.7 billion. The total investment stock abroad of resident enterprises in Palestine (assets) amounted to $7.102 billion at the end of 2019, of which 63.9% is a foreign currency in these enterprises and deposits in banks abroad. In addition, the total foreign investment stock in resident enterprises in Palestine (liabilities) amounted to $3.189 million at the end of 2019, of which 54.3 per cent is foreign direct investment. The survey showed that 64.3% of foreign direct investments (FDI) in resident enterprises in Palestine is concentrated in the financial intermediation activity. Meanwhile, the survey found, the investments from Jordan contributed 82.6% of the total stock of FDI in resident enterprises in Palestine. The survey also found that 59.8% of total portfolio investments in resident enterprises in Palestine are concentrated in the financial intermediation activity. However, the investments from Jordan contributed 51.2% of the total stock of portfolio investments in resident enterprises in Palestine. As per the Palestinian Authority's estimates, around 35% of the state's economy is contributed by the Palestinian defined Jerusalem metropolitan area, which consists of Ramallah, Bethlehem, Abu Dis and al-Eizariya.

Agriculture

After Israel occupied the West Bank and Gaza Strip in 1967, Palestinian agriculture suffered significant setbacks. The sector's contribution to the GDP declined, and the agricultural labor force decreased. The cultivated areas in the West Bank continuously declined since 1967. Palestinian farmers face obstacles in marketing and distributing their products, and Israeli restrictions on water usage have severely affected Palestinian agriculture. Over 85% of Palestinian water from the West Bank aquifers is used by Israel, and Palestinians are denied access to water resources from the Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers.

In Gaza, the coastal aquifer is suffering from saltwater intrusion. Israeli restrictions have limited irrigation of Palestinian land, with only 6% of West Bank land cultivated by Palestinians being irrigated, while Israeli settlers irrigate around 70% of their land. The Gulf War in 1991 had severe repercussions on Palestinian agriculture, as the majority of exports were previously sent to Arab Gulf countries. Palestinian exports to the Gulf States declined by 14% as a result of the war, causing a significant economic impact.

Manufacturing

A keffiyeh production line in Hebron

Manufacturing and exports in Palestine includes sectors such as textiles, food processing, pharmaceuticals, construction materials, furniture, plastic products, stone, and electronics. Some notable products are garments, olive oil, dairy products, furniture, ceramics, and construction materials. Before the second intifada, Palestine had a strong industrial base in Jerusalem and Gaza. Barriers erected in the West Bank have made movement of goods difficult; the blockade of the Gaza Strip has severely affected the territory's economic conditions. As of 2023, according to the Ministry of Economy, the manufacturing sector expected to grow by 2.5% and create 79,000 jobs over the following six years. Palestine mainly exports articles of stone (limestone, marble – 13.3%), furniture (11.7%), plastics (10.2%) and iron and steel (9.1%). Most of these products are exported to Jordan, the United States, Israel and Egypt.

Hebron is industrially most advanced city in the region and serves as an export hub for Palestinian products. More than 40% of the national economy produced there. The most advanced printing press in the Middle East is in Hebron. Many quarries are in the surrounding region. Silicon reserves are found in the Gaza territory. Jerusalem stone, extracted in the West Bank, has been used for constructing many structures in Jerusalem. Hebron is widely known for its glass production. Nablus is noted for its Nablus soap. Some of the companies operating in the Palestinian territories include Siniora Foods, Sinokrot Industries, Schneider Electric, PepsiCo and Coca-Cola.

Oil and gas

Palestine holds massive potential reserves of oil and gas. Over 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m³) of oil are estimated to exist off the coast and beneath occupied Palestinian lands. The Levant Basin holds around 1.7 billion barrels (270,000,000 m³) of oil, with another 1.5 billion barrels (240,000,000 m³) barrels beneath the occupied West Bank area. Around 2 billion barrels (320,000,000 m³) of oil reserves are believed to exist in shore of the Gaza Strip. According to a report by the UNCTAD, around 1,250 billion barrels (1.99×10¹¹ m³) of oil reserves are in the occupied Palestinian territory of the West Bank, probably the Meged oil field. As per the Palestinian Authority, 80% of this oil field falls under the lands owned by Palestinians.

Masadder, a subsidiary of the Palestine Investment Fund is developing the oilfield in the West Bank. Block-1 field, which spans an area of 432 square kilometres (167 sq mi) from northwest Ramallah to Qalqilya in Palestine, has significant potential for recoverable hydrocarbon resources. It is estimated to have a P90 (a level of certainty) of 0.03 billion barrels (4,800,000 m³) of recoverable oil and 6,000,000,000 cubic feet (170,000,000 m³). The estimated cost for the development of the field is $390 million, and it will be carried out under a production sharing agreement with the Government of Palestine. Currently, an initial pre-exploration work program is underway to prepare for designing an exploration plan for approval, which will precede the full-fledged development of the field.

Natural gas in Palestine is mostly found in Gaza Strip. Gaza Marine is a natural gas field, located around 32 kilometres (20 mi) from the coast of the territory in the Mediterranean shore. It holds gas reserves ranging between 28 billion cubic metres (990 billion cubic feet) to 32 billion cubic metres (1.1 trillion cubic feet). These estimates far exceed the needs of the Palestinian territories in energy. The gas field was discovered by the British Gas Group in 1999. Upon the discovery of the gas field, it was lauded by Yasser Arafat as a "Gift from God". A regional cooperation between the Palestinian Authority, Israel and Egypt were signed for developing the field and Hamas also gave approval to the Palestinian Authority. However, since the ongoing war in Gaza, this project have been delayed.

Finance and Services

The Palestine Monetary Authority has issued guidelines for the operation and provision of electronic payment services including e-wallet and prepaid cards. Protocol on Economic Relations, also known as Paris Protocol was signed between the PLO and Israel, which prohibited Palestinian Authority from having its own currency. This agreement paved a way for the government to collect taxes.

Prior to 1994, the occupied Palestinian territories had limited banking options, with Palestinians avoiding Israeli banks. This resulted in an under-banked region and a cash-based economy. Currently, there are 14 banks operating in Palestine, including Palestinian, Jordanian, and Egyptian banks, compared to 21 in 2000. The number of banks has decreased over time due to mergers and acquisitions. Deposits in Palestinian banks have seen significant growth, increasing from US$1.2 billion in 2007 to US$6.9 billion in 2018, representing a 475% increase. The banking sector has shown impressive annual growth rates in deposits and loan portfolios, surpassing global averages.

The combined loan facilities provided by all banks on December 31, 2018, amounted to US$8.4 billion, marking a significant growth of 492 percent compared to US$1.42 billion in 2007. Palestinian registered banks accounted for US$0.60 billion or 42 percent of total deposits in 2007, while in 2018, the loans extended by Palestinian registered banks reached US$5.02 billion, representing 61 percent of total loans. This showcases a remarkable 737 percent increase between 2007 and 2018. Currently, Palestinian registered banks hold 57 percent of customer deposits and provide 61 percent of the loans, compared to 26 percent of deposits and 42 percent of loans in 2007.

Economy

Palestine is classified as a middle income and developing country by the IMF. In 2023, GDP of the country was $40 billion and per-capita around $4,500. Due to its disputed status, the economic condition have been affected. The CO2 Emission (metric tons per capita) was 0.6 in 2010. According to a survey of 2011, Palestine's poverty rate was 25.8%. According to a new World Bank report, Palestinian economic growth is expected to soften in 2023. Economy of Palestine relies heavily on international aids, remittances by overseas Palestinians and local industries.

Construction of Rawabi and surrounding industrial areas

According to a report by the World Bank, the economic impact of Israel's closure policy has been profound, directly contributing to a significant decline in economic activity, widespread unemployment, and a rise in poverty since the onset of the Second Intifada in September 2000. The Israeli restrictions imposed on Area C alone result in an estimated annual loss of approximately $3.4 billion, which accounts for nearly half of the current Palestinian GDP. These restrictions have severely hindered economic growth and development in the region. In the aftermath of Israel's military offensive on the Gaza Strip in winter 2014, where a staggering number of structures were damaged or destroyed, the flow of construction and raw materials into Gaza has been severely limited. Additionally, regular exports from the region have been completely halted, exacerbating the economic challenges faced by the population.

Gaza before the 2023 war

One of the burdensome measures imposed by Israel is the "back-to-back" system enforced at crossing points within Palestinian territories. This policy forces shippers to unload and reload their goods from one truck to another, resulting in significant transportation costs and longer transit times for both finished products and raw materials. These additional expenses further impede economic growth and viability. Under the Oslo II accords signed in 1995, it was agreed that governance of Area C would be transferred to the Palestinian Authority within 18 months, except for matters to be determined in the final status agreement. However, Israel has failed to fulfill its obligations under the Oslo agreement, highlighting the urgent need for accountability and an end to impunity. The European Commission has highlighted the detrimental impact of the separation barrier constructed by Israel, estimating that it has led to an annual economic impoverishment of Palestinians by 2-3% of GDP. Furthermore, the escalating number of internal and external closures continues to have a devastating effect on any prospects for economic recovery in the region.

Palestine Export Treemap from MIT Harvard Economic Complexity Observatory

A recent study, conservatively estimating the economic impact of Israel's occupation and practices, revealed alarming findings. In 2010 alone, Israel's illegal use of Palestinian natural resources accounted for $1.83 billion USD, equivalent to 22% of Palestine's GDP that year. According to a World Bank report, the manufacturing sector's share of GDP decreased from 19% to 10% since the signing of the Oslo Accords until 2011. The same report, which adopted conservative estimates, suggests that access to Area 'C' in specific sectors like Dead Sea minerals, telecommunications, mining, tourism, and construction could contribute at least 22% to Palestinian GDP. In fact, the report notes that Israel and Jordan together generate around $4.2 billion annually from the sale of these products, representing 6% of the global potash supply and 73% of global bromine output. Overall, if Palestinians had unrestricted access to their own land in Area 'C,' the potential economic benefits for Palestine could increase by 35% of GDP, amounting to at least $3.4 billion annually. Similarly, water restrictions incurred a cost of $1.903 billion USD, equivalent to 23.4% of GDP, while Israel's ongoing blockade on the Gaza Strip resulted in a cost of $1.908 billion US$, representing 23.5% of GDP in 2010. These burdens are unsustainable for any economy, artificially limiting Palestine's economic potential and its right to develop a prosperous society with a stable economy and sustainable growth.

The State of Palestine's overall gross-domestic-product (GDP) has declined by 35% in the first quarter of 2024, due to the ongoing war in Gaza, the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) reports. There was a stark difference between the West Bank, which witnessed a decline of 25% and in the Gaza Strip, the number is 86% amid the ongoing war. The manufacturing sector decreased by 29% in the West Bank and 95% in Gaza, while the construction sector decreased by 42% in the West Bank and essentially collapsed in Gaza, with a 99% decrease.

Agriculture

After Israel occupied the West Bank and Gaza Strip in 1967, Palestinian agriculture suffered significant setbacks. The sector's contribution to the GDP declined, and the agricultural labor force decreased. The cultivated areas in the West Bank continuously declined since 1967. Palestinian farmers face obstacles in marketing and distributing their products, and Israeli restrictions on water usage have severely affected Palestinian agriculture. Over 85% of Palestinian water from the West Bank aquifers is used by Israel, and Palestinians are denied access to water resources from the Jordan and Yarmouk Rivers.

In Gaza, the coastal aquifer is suffering from saltwater intrusion. Israeli restrictions have limited irrigation of Palestinian land, with only 6% of West Bank land cultivated by Palestinians being irrigated, while Israeli settlers irrigate around 70% of their land. The Gulf War in 1991 had severe repercussions on Palestinian agriculture, as the majority of exports were previously sent to Arab Gulf countries. Palestinian exports to the Gulf States declined by 14% as a result of the war, causing a significant economic impact.

Tourism

Main article: Tourism in the State of Palestine

Jerusalem is most popular tourist destination for the country

Tourism in the country refers to tourism in East Jerusalem, the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. In 2010, 4.6 million people visited the Palestinian territories, compared to 2.6 million in 2009. Of that number, 2.2 million were foreign tourists while 2.7 million were domestic.

Most tourists come for only a few hours or as part of a day trip itinerary. In the last quarter of 2012 over 150,000 guests stayed in West Bank hotels; 40% were European and 9% were from the United States and Canada. Lonely Planet travel guide writes that "the West Bank is not the easiest place in which to travel but the effort is richly rewarded." Sacred sites such as the Western Wall, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, and the Al-Aqsa Mosque draw countless pilgrims and visitors each year.

In 2013 Palestinian Authority Tourism minister Rula Ma'ay'a stated that her government aims to encourage international visits to Palestine, but the occupation is the main factor preventing the tourism sector from becoming a major income source to Palestinians. There are no visa conditions imposed on foreign nationals other than those imposed by the visa policy of Israel. Access to Jerusalem, the West Bank, and Gaza is completely controlled by the government of Israel. Entry to the occupied Palestinian territories requires only a valid international passport.

Inside Oasis Hotel in Jericho

Tourism is mostly centered around Jerusalem and Bethlehem. Jericho is a popular tourist spot for local Palestinians. A large number of luxury hotels are located throughout Palestine. Some of them are of international brands which includes — InterContinental Hotel Group, Mövenpick Hotels & Resorts, Days Inn, Golden Gate Hotels and Marriott International. Most tourists visiting Jerusalem comes from Turkey and stays in Palestinian hotels. Riwaq Organization based in Ramallah, have launched a large number of renovation and restoration project across the country, which aims to boost local economy. The organization have restored many historic structures across rural Jerusalem, in collaboration with local councils. Those structures includes Roman, Byzantine and Islamic era fortress, mosques, mansions etc.

Manufacturing and natural resources

A keffiyeh production line in Hebron

Manufacturing and exports in Palestine includes sectors such as textiles, food processing, pharmaceuticals, construction materials, furniture, plastic products, stone, and electronics. Some notable products are garments, olive oil, dairy products, furniture, ceramics, and construction materials. Before the second intifada, Palestine had a strong industrial base in Jerusalem and Gaza. Barriers erected in the West Bank have made movement of goods difficult; the blockade of the Gaza Strip has severely affected the territory's economic conditions. As of 2023, according to the Ministry of Economy, the manufacturing sector expected to grow by 2.5% and create 79,000 jobs over the following six years. Palestine mainly exports articles of stone (limestone, marble – 13.3%), furniture (11.7%), plastics (10.2%) and iron and steel (9.1%). Most of these products are exported to Jordan, the United States, Israel and Egypt.

Hebron is industrially most advanced city in the region and serves as an export hub for Palestinian products. More than 40% of the country's contribution comes from Hebron. The most advanced printing press in the Middle East is in Hebron. Many quarries are in the surrounding region. Silicon reserves are found in the Gaza territory. Jerusalem stone, extracted in the West Bank, has been used for constructing many structures in Jerusalem. Hebron is widely known for its glass production. Nablus is noted for its Nablus soap. Some of the companies operating in the Palestinian territories include Siniora Foods, Sinokrot Industries, Schneider Electric, PepsiCo and Coca-Cola.

Oil and gas

A fuel station in Huwwara

Natural gas in Palestine is mostly found in Gaza Strip. Gaza Marine is a natural gas field, located around 32 kilometres (20 mi) from the coast of the territory in the Mediterranean shore. It holds gas reserves ranging between 28 billion cubic metres (990 billion cubic feet) to 32 billion cubic metres (1.1 trillion cubic feet). Masadder, a subsidiary of the Palestine Investment Fund is developing the oilfield in the West Bank. Block-1 field, which spans an area of 432 square kilometres (167 sq mi) from northwest Ramallah to Qalqilya in Palestine, has significant potential for recoverable hydrocarbon resources. It is estimated to have a P90 (a level of certainty) of 0.03 billion barrels (4,800,000 m³) of recoverable oil and 6,000,000,000 cubic feet (170,000,000 m³). The estimated cost for the development of the field is $390 million, and it will be carried out under a production sharing agreement with the Government of Palestine. Currently, an initial pre-exploration work program is underway to prepare for designing an exploration plan for approval, which will precede the full-fledged development of the field.

Over 3 billion barrels (480,000,000 m³) of oil are estimated to exist off the coast and beneath occupied Palestinian lands. The Levant Basin holds around 1.7 billion barrels (270,000,000 m³) of oil, with another 1.5 billion barrels (240,000,000 m³) barrels beneath the occupied West Bank area. Around 2 billion barrels (320,000,000 m³) of oil reserves are believed to exist in shore of the Gaza Strip. According to a report by the UNCTAD, around 1,250 billion barrels (1.99×10¹¹ m³) of oil reserves are in the occupied Palestinian territory of the West Bank, probably the Meged oil field. As per the Palestinian Authority, 80% of this oil field falls under the lands owned by Palestinians.

Finance and Services

Islamic Bank branch in Salfit

The Palestine Monetary Authority has issued guidelines for the operation and provision of electronic payment services including e-wallet and prepaid cards. Protocol on Economic Relations, also known as Paris Protocol was signed between the PLO and Israel, which prohibited Palestinian Authority from having its own currency. This agreement paved a way for the government to collect taxes.

Prior to 1994, the occupied Palestinian territories had limited banking options, with Palestinians avoiding Israeli banks. This resulted in an under-banked region and a cash-based economy. Currently, there are 14 banks operating in Palestine, including Palestinian, Jordanian, and Egyptian banks, compared to 21 in 2000. The number of banks has decreased over time due to mergers and acquisitions. Deposits in Palestinian banks have seen significant growth, increasing from US$1.2 billion in 2007 to US$6.9 billion in 2018, representing a 475% increase. The banking sector has shown impressive annual growth rates in deposits and loan portfolios, surpassing global averages.

The combined loan facilities provided by all banks on December 31, 2018, amounted to US$8.4 billion, marking a significant growth of 492 percent compared to US$1.42 billion in 2007. Palestinian registered banks accounted for US$0.60 billion or 42 percent of total deposits in 2007, while in 2018, the loans extended by Palestinian registered banks reached US$5.02 billion, representing 61 percent of total loans. This showcases a remarkable 737 percent increase between 2007 and 2018. Currently, Palestinian registered banks hold 57 percent of customer deposits and provide 61 percent of the loans, compared to 26 percent of deposits and 42 percent of loans in 2007.

Science and Technology

An IT park in Ersal Commercial Center

Ironically known as "the Silicon Valley of NGOs", Palestine has a sizeable regional IT industry. It is supported by its close proximity to Israel. The IT industry emerged in the country since the late 1990s, in framework of Israeli–Palestinian economic peace efforts. Cisco established a large number of networking academies across the Palestinian territories in the late 1990s. This move attracted several multinational companies to setup outsourcing operations in the country. Though the process was disturbed during the 2000–2005 intifada, but revived quickly after it's end.

The IT industry of Palestine employs 5,000 individuals in 250 companies in the West Bank and Gaza. Around 50% of these companies have partnerships outside the West Bank and Gaza and 40% export to international markets. The Palestinian IT Association of Companies (PITA) estimates that the annual growth of the local IT market is about 25% a year and that it is now worth more than $300 million. According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) the output of the sector was worth $588.9 million in 2010. In 2011 the sector contributed 6.4% to Palestinian GDP, 4 up from 0.8% in 2008. In terms of employment, the number of people who work in the sector increased from 2,200 in 2000 to 6,400 in 2011. Roughly 3,000 university graduates who hold IT-related degrees.

Most of the IT companies are concentrated in Ramallah and Jerusalem. The government in partnership with other countries have built technology parks across Palestine. On 12 June 2020, the World Bank approved a US$15 million grant for the Technology for Youth and Jobs (TechStart) Project aiming to help the Palestinian IT sector upgrade the capabilities of firms and create more high-quality jobs. Kanthan Shankar, World Bank Country Director for West Bank and Gaza said "The IT sector has the potential to make a strong contribution to economic growth. It can offer opportunities to Palestinian youth, who constitute 30% of the population and suffer from acute unemployment."

Infrastructure

Transportation

The transport system of Palestine is controlled by the Palestinian Authority, Israeli government and the Hamas government. As of 2022, the road network length was 3469 km. Buses are the primary means of public transportation, operating both within urban areas and on intercity routes. Shared taxis, known as "servees" or "service taxis," are also widely used and provide transportation within cities and towns. In the West Bank, buses are available for traveling between the cities of Bethlehem and Jerusalem.

Jerusalem International Airport was built by the British government of Palestine, which came under control of Jordan after the 1948 war. After the 1967 war, the airport came under control of Israel. However it was still used by Palestinian travellers. Gaza International Airport built in 1998, was first airport built by the Palestinian government. It had daily flights to the United States, European countries and rest of the Middle East. As a result of escalating violence in the second intifada, the airport was bombed by Israeli army and Jerusalem Airport was closed. The government of Palestine is now considering to bultd an airport in the West Bank. A proposal have been made by both the Israeli and Palestinian government to rebuild Jerusalem Airport as bi-national airport for both Israel and Palestinian Authority.

Most of the country's railway system have been destroyed in previous wars.

Education

Main article: Education in Palestine

See also: List of universities and colleges in the State of Palestine

Students at the Birzeit University

The literacy rate of Palestine was 96.3% according to a 2014 report by the United Nations Development Programme, which is high by international standards. There is a gender difference in the population aged above 15 with 5.9% of women considered illiterate compared to 1.6% of men. Illiteracy among women has fallen from 20.3% in 1997 to less than 6% in 2014. In the State of Palestine, the Gaza Strip has the highest literacy rate. According to a press blog of Columbia University, Palestinians are the most educated refugees.

Islamic University of Gaza before the 2007 civil war

The education system in Palestine encompasses both the West Bank and the Gaza Strip, and it is administered by the Ministry of Education and Higher Education. Basic education in Palestine includes primary school (grades 1–4) and preparatory school (grades 5–10). Secondary education consists of general secondary education (grades 11–12) and vocational education. The curriculum includes subjects such as Arabic, English, mathematics, science, social studies, and physical education. Islamic and Christian religious studies are also part of the curriculum as per the educational ministry.

The West Bank and the Gaza Strip together have 14 universities, 18 university colleges and 20 community colleges. While there are 3,000 schools are in Palestine. An-Najah National University in Nablus is the largest university of the country, followed by Al-Quds University in Jerusalem and Birzeit University in Birzeit near Ramallah. Al-Quds University achieved 5-star rating in quality standards and was termed as "socially most responsible university in the Arab world" and is the largest Palestinian university in Jerusalem, followed by Ibrahimieh College. In 2018, Birzeit University was ranked as one of the top 2.7% of universities worldwide by World University Rankings in its 2019 edition. Bethlehem is home to two Christian colleges — the Bethlehem Bible College and the Bethlehem University, a catholic university.

Communication

Main article: Communications in the State of Palestine

Palestine is known as the "Silicon Valley of NGOs". The high tech industry in Palestine, have experienced good growth since 2008. The Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS) and the Ministry of Telecom and Information Technology said there were 4.2 million cellular mobile subscribers in Palestine compared to 2.6 million at the end of 2010 while the number of ADSL subscribers in Palestine increased to about 363 thousand by the end of 2019 from 119 thousand over the same period. 97% of Palestinian households have at least one cellular mobile line while at least one smartphone is owned by 86% of households (91% in the West Bank and 78% in Gaza Strip). About 80% of the Palestinian households have access to the internet in their homes and about a third have a computer.

Water supply

Water supply and sanitation in the Palestinian territories are characterized by severe water shortage and are highly influenced by the Israeli occupation. The water resources of Palestine are partially controlled by Israel due in part from historical and geographical complexities with Israel granting partial autonomy in 2017. The division of groundwater is subject to provisions in the Oslo II Accord, agreed upon by both Israeli and Palestinian leadership.^{[citation needed]} Israel provides the Palestinain territories water from its own water supply and desalinated water supplies, in 2012 supplying 52 MCM.

Generally, the water quality is considerably worse in the Gaza Strip when compared to the West Bank. About a third to half of the delivered water in the Palestinian territories is lost in the distribution network. The lasting blockade of the Gaza Strip and the Gaza War have caused severe damage to the infrastructure in the Gaza Strip. Concerning wastewater, the existing treatment plants do not have the capacity to treat all of the produced wastewater, causing severe water pollution. The development of the sector highly depends on external financing.

Demographics

According to the Palestinian Central Bureau of Statistics (PCBS), as of 26 May 2021, the State of Palestine 2021 mid-year population is 5,227,193. Ala Owad, the president of the PCBS, estimated a population of 5.3 million as of end year 2021. Within an area of 6,020 square kilometres (2,320 sq mi), there is a population density of about 827 people per square kilometer. To put this in a wider context, the average population density of the world was 25 people per square kilometre as of 2017.

Ethnicity

Palestinians are natively Arab, who speaks Arabic language. Bedouin communities of Palestinian nationality, who are minority are live in the West Bank, particularly around Hebron Hills and rural Jerusalem. As of 2013, approximately 40,000 Bedouin reside in the West Bank and 5,000 Bedouins in the Gaza Strip. Jahalin and Ta'amireh are two major Bedouin tribes in the country. A large number of non-Arab ethnic groups also live in the country, who are considered as part of Palestine. These includes groups of Kurds, Assyrians, Romani, Africans, Dom, Russians, Turks and Armenians.

Most of the non-Arab Palestinian communities reside around Jerusalem. About 5,000 Assyrians in Palestine live mostly in holy cities of Jerusalem and Bethlehem. An estimated population between 200-450 of black African, known as Afro-Palestinians live in Jerusalem. A small community of Kurds in Palestine are found in Hebron. Nawar people consisting of Dom and Romani community tracing their origins from India, is a small community in Palestine and lives in Jerusalem. The Russian diaspora is also found in Palestine, particularly in the Russian Compound of Jerusalem and some in Hebron. Most of them are Christians of the Russian Orthodox Church.

In 2022, an estimate of approximately 5,000–6,000 Armenians lived across Israel and Palestine. Out of which around 1,000 Armenians lived in Jerusalem and few of them lived in Bethlehem. As of 1987, 400,000 to 500,000 Turks lived in Palestine. Due to 1947–1949 civil war, many Turkish family fled the region and setlled in Jordan, Syria and Lebanon. According to a 2022 news article by Al Monitor many families of Turkish origin in Gaza have been migrating to Turkey due to the "deteriorating economic conditions in the besieged enclave."

Cities and towns

Main articles: List of cities administered by the Palestinian Authority and List of cities administered by Hamas Administration

Largest cities or towns in Palestine
	Rank	Name	Governorate	Pop.
Gaza Jerusalem	1	Gaza	Gaza Governorate	766,331	Hebron Nablus
	2	Jerusalem	Jerusalem Governorate	542,400
	3	Hebron	Hebron Governorate	308,750
	4	Nablus	Nablus Governorate	239,772
	5	Khan Yunis	Khan Yunis Governorate	179,701
	6	Jabalia	North Gaza Governorate	165,110
	7	Rafah	Rafah Governorate	158,414
	8	Jenin	Jenin Governorate	115,305
	9	Ramallah	Ramallah and al-Bireh	104,173
	10	Beit Lahia	North Gaza Governorate	86,526

Culture

Arts and Literature

Mahmoud Darwish is national poet of Palestine

Mahmoud Darwish is the most celebrated poet of the country. He is considered as national poet of Palestine.

Cuisine

Kanafeh Nabulsieh

Palestine

Architecture

Main article: Architecture of Palestine

The Palestinian Museum, in Birzeit, West Bank

Palestinian architecture encompasses a rich heritage that reflects the cultural and historical diversity of the region. Throughout its history, Palestinian architecture has been influenced by various civilizations, including Islamic, Byzantine, Crusader, and Ottoman. Traditional Palestinian architecture is characterized by its use of local materials such as stone and traditional construction techniques. The architectural style varies across different regions, with notable features including arched doorways, domes, and intricate geometric patterns. Islamic architecture has left a profound impact on Palestinian buildings. Mosques, mausoleums, and madrasas showcase exquisite craftsmanship, with notable examples including the Al-Aqsa Mosque in Jerusalem and the Great Mosque of Nablus.

Al-Manara Clock Tower in Nablus

Palestine is home to several Byzantine and Crusader architectural marvels. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem, which dates back to the 4th century, is a significant pilgrimage site. The Crusader fortress of Krak des Chevaliers in the Golan Heights is another remarkable example. During the Ottoman period, numerous mosques, palaces, and public buildings were constructed throughout Palestine. The iconic Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem underwent restoration and renovation in the Ottoman era, showcasing a blend of Islamic and Byzantine architectural elements.

Inside the American Colony Hotel, Jerusalem

Rasem Badran and Mohamed Hadid are popular Palestinian architects. In recent years, modern architecture has emerged in Palestine, blending traditional elements with contemporary designs. The Palestinian Museum in Birzeit, designed by Heneghan Peng Architects, exemplifies this fusion, incorporating local motifs and sustainable building practices. International Convention Center in Bethlehem, is a prominent structure showcasing contemporary Palestinian architecture. Another notable building is the Palestinian National Theatre in Jerusalem. Elements of modern architecture can be found in shopping malls, luxury hotels, technology parks and high rise skyscrapers. The Palestine Trade Tower in Ramallah is the tallest building in Palestine. Other notable modern structures across the country includes — A. M. Qattan Foundation, Bethlehem National Conservatory, Ersal Commercial Center and Wonder Cabinet.

Music and Cinema

Main articles: Palestinian Music and Palestinian Cinema

Traditional Palestinian music is deeply rooted in the region's history and culture. It features instruments such as the oud (a stringed instrument), the qanun (a type of zither), and various percussion instruments. Traditional folk songs often depict themes of love, longing, and daily life experiences. Artists like Mohammad Assaf, winner of the Arab Idol competition, have gained international recognition for their renditions of traditional Palestinian songs. Dabke is a popular Palestinian dance form accompanied by music. The lively and rhythmic music is characterized by the use of the mijwiz (a reed flute), the tablah (a drum), and the handclapping of dancers. Dabke songs are often performed at weddings, celebrations, and cultural events, fostering a sense of community and shared identity.

Palestinian pop music has gained popularity in recent years, blending modern elements with traditional influences. Artists like Mohammed Assaf, Amal Murkus, and Rim Banna have contributed to the contemporary pop scene with their unique styles and powerful voices. Their songs address both personal and political themes, resonating with Palestinians and audiences worldwide. Palestinian hip-hop has emerged as a powerful medium for expressing the realities and struggles faced by Palestinians. Artists such as DAM, Shadia Mansour, and Tamer Nafar have gained international recognition for their socially conscious lyrics, addressing topics such as occupation, identity, and resistance. Palestinian hip-hop serves as a form of cultural resistance, amplifying the voices of Palestinian youth. Rim Banna was a Palestinian singer known for her ethereal vocals and her dedication to preserving Palestinian folk music. Reem Kelani, a Palestinian musician based in the United Kingdom, is renowned for her powerful voice and her reinterpretation of traditional Palestinian songs. Dalal Abu Amneh is a popular Palestinian singer and poet.

Clara Khoury, a Palestinian–American actress

The cinema of Palestine has been shaped by pioneering filmmakers such as Elia Suleiman, Hany Abu-Assad, and Annemarie Jacir. Their works have gained international acclaim while shedding light on the Palestinian experience. Palestinian films have received recognition and awards at prestigious film festivals worldwide. For example, Hany Abu-Assad's film "Paradise Now" was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film in 2006. Palestinian cinema production is centered in Jerusalem, with prominent local scenes in Ramallah, Bethlehem, and Nablus. Palestinian cinema is also popular at regional level. Actors and actresses of different generations have made their name in the industry. Makram Khoury, Mohammad Bakri, Hiam Abbass, and Amal Murkus emerged as popular faces in Palestinian cinema during the 1970s and 1980s. Areen Omari, Valantina Abu Oqsa, Saleh Bakri, Tawfeek Barhom, and Ashraf Barhom became popular in the mid-1990s, while Leem Lubany and Clara Khoury have gained acclaim since 2000.

Popular Palestinian films includes Wedding in Galilee (1987), Chronicle of a Disappearance (1996), Divine Intervention (2002), Paradise Now (2005), The Time That Remains (2009), and Omar (2013). Documentary filmmaking has played a significant role in capturing and documenting the Palestinian experience. Films like 5 Broken Cameras by Emad Burnat and Guy Davidi have received critical acclaim. Palestinian filmmakers often face unique challenges due to the political situation in the region, with many films made under the rules and struggles of occupation. The Palestinian Film Festival, held annually in various cities around the world, showcases Palestinian cinema and provides a platform for Palestinian filmmakers to share their stories.

Sports

Main article: Sports in Palestine

Palestine has been participating in the Olympic Games since 1996, with athletes competing in various sports, including athletics, swimming, judo, and taekwondo. Palestinian Olympians proudly represent their nation on the international stage. The country is a member of the International Olympic Committee. In addition to football, basketball, handball, and volleyball are also popular sports in Palestine. The Palestinian Basketball Federation and Palestinian Handball Federation oversee these sports' development and organization.

Association football (soccer) is the most popular sport in the state of Palestine, with the Palestine national football team representing the state in international football and governed by FIFA worldwide. The Palestine Cup is the premier domestic football competition in Palestine. It features teams from the West Bank and Gaza Strip, and the winner represents Palestine in the AFC Cup. Faisal Al-Husseini International Stadium, located in Al-Ram in Jerusalem, stands as the largest stadium in Palestine. It serves as the home ground for the national football team. Other notable stadiums include Dora International Stadium in Hebron, Palestine Stadium in Gaza and Nablus Football Stadium in the Nablus.