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Intracellular pH (pHi) edit

 
Figure 1: pH gradient across a membrane, with protons traveling through a transporter embedded in the membrane.

"Intracellular pH (pHi) is the measure of the acidity or basicity (i.e., pH) of intracellular fluid. The pHi plays a critical role in membrane transport and other intracellular processes. In an environment with the improper pHi, biological cells may have compromised function.[1]Therefore, pHi is closely regulated in order to ensure proper cellular function, controlled cell growth, and normal cellular processes.[2] The mechanisms that regulate pHi are usually considered to be plasma membrane transporters of which two main types exist — those that are dependent and those that are independent of HCO3−. Physiologically normal intracellular pH is most commonly between 7.0 and 7.4, though there is variability between tissues (e.g., mammalian skeletal muscle tends to have a pHi of 6.8-7.1).[3][4]". There is also pH variation across different organelles, which can span from around 4.5 to 8.0.[5][6] pHi can be measured in a number of different ways .[2][7]


How Intracellular pH is maintained edit

"Intracellular pH is typically lower than extracellular pH due to lower concentrations of HCO3−.[5] When extracellular (e.g., serum) pCO2 levels rise above 45 mmHg, the cell will uptake more H+ to buffer, and pHi decreases.[8]" Since biological cells contain fluid that can act as a buffer, pHi can be maintained fairly well within a certain range.[9] Cells adjust their pHi accordingly upon an increase in acidity or basicity, usually with the help of CO2 or HCO3- sensors present in the membrane of the cell.[2] These sensors can permit H+ to pass through the cell membrane accordingly, allowing for pHi to be interrelated with extracellular pH in this respect.[10] Major intracellular buffer systems include those involving proteins or phosphates. Since the proteins have acidic and basic regions, they can serve as both proton donors or acceptors in order to maintain a relatively stable intracellular pH. In the case of a phosphate buffer, substantial quantities of weak acid and conjugate weak base (H2PO4− and H2PO42−) can accept or donate protons accordingly in order to conserve intracellular pH.[11][12]


pH Variation in Organelles edit

 
Figure 4: Approximate pHs of various organelles within a cell.[5]

The pH within a particular organelle is tailored for its specific function.

For example, lysosomes have a relatively low pH of 4.5.[5] Additionally, fluorescence microscopy techniques have indicated that phagocytes also have a relatively low internal pH.[13] Since these are both degradative organelles that engulf and break down other substances, they require high internal acidity in order to successfully perform their intended function.[13]

In contrast to the relatively low pH inside lysosomes and phagocytes, the mitochondrial matrix has an internal pH of around 8.0, which is approximately 0.9 pH units higher than that of inside intermembrane space.[5][14] Since oxidative phosphorylation must occur inside the mitochondria, this pH discrepancy is necessary to create a gradient across the membrane (Figure 5). This membrane potential is ultimately what allows for the mitochondria to generate large quantities of ATP.[15]


Methods for Measuring Intracellular pH edit

 
Figure 5: Protons being pumped from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space as the electron transport chain runs, lowering the pH of the intermembrane space.

There are several common ways in which intracellular pH (pHi) can be measured including with a microelectrode, dye that is sensitive to pH, or with nuclear magnetic resonance techniques.[16][17] For measuring pH inside of organelles, a technique utilizing pH-sensitive green fluorescent proteins (GFPs) may be used.[18]

Microelectrode edit

The microelectrode method for measuring pHi consists of placing a very small electrode into the cell’s cytosol by making a very small hole in the plasma membrane of the cell.[17] Since the microelectrode has fluid with a high H+ concentration inside, relative to the outside of the electrode, there is a potential created due to the pH discrepancy between the inside and outside of the electrode.[16][17] From this voltage difference, and a predetermined pH for the fluid inside the electrode, one an determine the intracellular pH (pHi) of the cell of interest. [17]

Fluorescence Spectroscopy edit

Another way to measure Intracellular pH (pHi) is with dyes that are sensitive to pH, and fluoresce differently at various pH values.[13][19] This technique, which makes use of fluorescence spectroscopy, consists of adding this special dye to the cytosol of a cell.[16][17] By exciting the dye in the cell with energy from light, and measuring the wavelength of light released by the photon as it returns to its native energy state, one can determine the type of dye present, and relate that to the intracellular pH of the given cell.[16][17]

Nuclear Magnetic Resonance edit

In addition to using pH-sensitive electrodes and dyes to measure pHi, Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) spectroscopy can also be used to quantify pHi.[17] NMR, typically speaking, reveals information about the inside of a cell by placing the cell in an environment with a potent magnetic field.[16][17] Based on the ratio between the concentrations of protonated, compared to deprotonated forms of phosphate compounds in a given cell, the internal pH of the cell can be determined.[16] Additionally, NMR may also be used to reveal the presence of intracellular sodium, which can also provide information about the pHi.[20]

pH-sensitive GFPs edit

To determine the pH inside organelles, pH-sensitive GFPs are often used as part of a noninvasive and effective technique.[18] By using cDNA as a template along with the appropriate primers, the GFP gene can be expressed in the cytosol, and the proteins produced can target specific regions within the cell, such as the mitochondria, golgi apparatus, cytoplasm, and endoplasmic reticulum.[21] Certain GFP mutants that are highly sensitive to pH in intracellular environments are used in these experiments, the relative amount of resulting fluorescence can reveal the approximate surrounding pH.[21][22]

Summary of Measurement Methods edit

Overall, all three methods have their own advantages and disadvantages. Using dyes is perhaps the easiest and fairly precise, while NMR presents the challenge of being relatively less precise.[16] Furthermore, using a microelectrode may be challenging in situations where the cells are too small, or the intactness of the cell membrane should remain undisturbed.[17] GFPs are unique in that they provide a noninvasive way of determining pH inside different organelles, yet this method is not the most quantitively precise way of determining pH.[21]

Additional Information edit

Using NMR Spectroscopy, it has been determined that "lymphocytes maintain a constant internal pH of 7.17± 0.06, though, like all cells, the intracellular pH changes in the same direction as extracellular pH.[23]

Pioneer researchers in the area of intracellular pH include Jacques Pouyssegur (University of Nice, France), Albrecht Schwab, University of Münster, Germany, and Diane Barber, University of California, San Francisco, USA."

References edit

  1. ^ Flinck, M.; Kramer, S. H.; Pedersen, S. F. (July 2018). "Roles of pH in control of cell proliferation". Acta Physiologica (Oxford, England). 223 (3): e13068. doi:10.1111/apha.13068. ISSN 1748-1716. PMID 29575508.
  2. ^ a b c Boron WF (December 2004). "Regulation of intracellular pH". Adv Physiol Educ. 28 (1–4): 160–79. doi:10.1152/advan.00045.2004. PMID 15545345.
  3. ^ "2.6 Regulation of Intracellular Hydrogen Ion Concentration". www.anaesthesiamcq.com. Retrieved 2018-10-06.
  4. ^ Madshus, Inger Helene (1988). "Review article - Regulation of intracellular pH in eukaryotic cells" (PDF). Biochem. J. 250: 1–8.
  5. ^ a b c d Asokan, Aravind; Cho, Moo J. (April 2002). "Exploitation of intracellular pH gradients in the cellular delivery of macromolecules". Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences. 91 (4): 903–913. ISSN 0022-3549. PMID 11948528.
  6. ^ Proksch, Ehrhardt (September 2018). "pH in nature, humans and skin". The Journal of Dermatology. 45 (9): 1044–1052. doi:10.1111/1346-8138.14489. ISSN 1346-8138. PMID 29863755.
  7. ^ Demuth, Caspar; Varonier, Joel; Jossen, Valentin; Eibl, Regine; Eibl, Dieter (May 2016). "Novel probes for pH and dissolved oxygen measurements in cultivations from millilitre to benchtop scale". Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology. 100 (9): 3853–3863. doi:10.1007/s00253-016-7412-0. ISSN 1432-0614. PMID 26995606.
  8. ^ Flinck M, Kramer SH, Pedersen SF (July 2018). "Roles of pH in control of cell proliferation". Acta Physiol (Oxf). 223 (3): e13068. doi:10.1111/apha.13068. PMID 29575508.
  9. ^ Slonczewski, Joan L.; Fujisawa, Makoto; Dopson, Mark; Krulwich, Terry A. (2009). "Cytoplasmic pH measurement and homeostasis in bacteria and archaea". Advances in Microbial Physiology. 55: 1–79, 317. doi:10.1016/S0065-2911(09)05501-5. ISSN 2162-5468. PMID 19573695.
  10. ^ Jensen, F. B. (November 2004). "Red blood cell pH, the Bohr effect, and other oxygenation-linked phenomena in blood O2 and CO2 transport". Acta Physiologica Scandinavica. 182 (3): 215–227. doi:10.1111/j.1365-201X.2004.01361.x. ISSN 0001-6772. PMID 15491402.
  11. ^ "pH of the Blood - 3 - Control mechanisms - M J Bookallil". www.anaesthesia.med.usyd.edu.au. Retrieved 2019-05-28.
  12. ^ Burton, R. F. (April 1978). "Intracellular buffering". Respiration Physiology. 33 (1): 51–58. ISSN 0034-5687. PMID 27854.
  13. ^ a b c Nunes, Paula; Guido, Daniele; Demaurex, Nicolas (2015-12-07). "Measuring Phagosome pH by Ratiometric Fluorescence Microscopy". Journal of Visualized Experiments: JoVE (106): e53402. doi:10.3791/53402. ISSN 1940-087X. PMID 26710109.
  14. ^ Porcelli, Anna Maria; Ghelli, Anna; Zanna, Claudia; Pinton, Paolo; Rizzuto, Rosario; Rugolo, Michela (2005-01-28). "pH difference across the outer mitochondrial membrane measured with a green fluorescent protein mutant". Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications. 326 (4): 799–804. doi:10.1016/j.bbrc.2004.11.105. ISSN 0006-291X. PMID 15607740.
  15. ^ Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, et al. Molecular Biology of the Cell. 4th edition. New York: Garland Science; 2002. The Mitochondrion.Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK26894/
  16. ^ a b c d e f g Roos, A.; Boron, W. F. (April 1981). "Intracellular pH". Physiological Reviews. 61 (2): 296–434. doi:10.1152/physrev.1981.61.2.296. ISSN 0031-9333. PMID 7012859.
  17. ^ a b c d e f g h i Loiselle FB, Casey JR (2010). "Measurement of Intracellular pH". Methods Mol. Biol. 637: 311–31. doi:10.1007/978-1-60761-700-6_17. PMID 20419443.
  18. ^ a b Roberts, Tania Michelle; Rudolf, Fabian; Meyer, Andreas; Pellaux, Rene; Whitehead, Ellis; Panke, Sven; Held, Martin (2018-05-17). "Corrigendum: Identification and Characterisation of a pH-stable GFP". Scientific Reports. 8: 46976. doi:10.1038/srep46976. ISSN 2045-2322.
  19. ^ Specht, Elizabeth A.; Braselmann, Esther; Palmer, Amy E. (October 2017). "A Critical and Comparative Review of Fluorescent Tools for Live-Cell Imaging". Annual Review of Physiology. 79: 93–117. doi:10.1146/annurev-physiol-022516-034055. ISSN 1545-1585. PMID 27860833.
  20. ^ Eliav, U.; Navon, G. (February 2016). "Sodium NMR/MRI for anisotropic systems". NMR in biomedicine. 29 (2): 144–152. doi:10.1002/nbm.3331. ISSN 1099-1492. PMID 26105084.
  21. ^ a b c Kneen, M.; Farinas, J.; Li, Y.; Verkman, A. S. (March 1998). "Green fluorescent protein as a noninvasive intracellular pH indicator". Biophysical Journal. 74 (3): 1591–1599. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(98)77870-1. ISSN 0006-3495. PMC 1299504. PMID 9512054.{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  22. ^ Rizzuto, Rosario; Brini, Marisa; Pizzo, Paola; Murgia, Marta; Pozzan, Tullio (June 1995). "Chimeric green fluorescent protein as a tool for visualizing subcellular organelles in living cells". Current Biology. 5 (6): 635–642. doi:10.1016/s0960-9822(95)00128-x. ISSN 0960-9822.
  23. ^ C. Deutsch; J. S. Taylor; D. F. Wilson (December 1982). "Regulation of intracellular pH by human peripheral blood lymphocytes as measured by 19F NMR" (PDF). Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 79 (24): 7944–7948. doi:10.1073/pnas.79.24.7944. PMC 347466. PMID 6961462. Retrieved 2014-08-01.
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