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Research issues and methods[edit] edit
- What develops? What relevant aspects of the individual change over a period of time?
- What are the rate and speed of development?
- What are the mechanisms of development – what aspects of experience and heredity cause developmental change?
- Are there typical individual differences in the relevant developmental changes?
- Are there population differences in this aspect of development (for example, differences in the development of boys and of girls)?
Empirical research that attempts to answer these questions may follow a number of patterns. Initially, observational research in naturalistic conditions may be needed to develop a narrative describing and defining an aspect of developmental change, such as changes in reflex reactions in the first year. This type of work may be followed by correlational studies, collecting information about chronological age and some type of development such as vocabulary growth; correlational statistics can be used to state change. Such studies examine the characteristics of children at different ages. These methods may involve longitudinal studies, in which a group of children is re-examined on a number of occasions as they get older, or cross-sectional studies, in which groups of children of different ages are tested once and compared with each other, or there may be a combination of these approaches. Some child development studies examine the effects of experience or heredity by comparing characteristics of different groups of children in a necessarily non-randomized design. Other studies can use randomized designs to compare outcomes for groups of children who receive different interventions or educational treatments.
Infant Research and Methods edit
Issues and Differences edit
When thinking about conducting psychological research on infants and children, there are certain key aspects of infants that need to be considered before embarking on research.[1] The five key challenges to conducting research with infants are that infants:
- cannot talk
- have a limited behavioral repertoire
- cannot follow instructions
- have a short attention span
- develop rapidly so methods need to be updated at different ages and developmental stages[1]
Examples of Infant Research Methods edit
Preference Procedures edit
Sucking Rate edit
High-amplitude sucking technique (HAS) is one common way to explore infants’ preferences. HAS is appropriate for infants from the time that they are born until they are four months old since it takes advantage of infants’ sucking reflex.[2] When this is a measure of interest, researchers will code a baseline sucking rate for each baby before exposing them to the item of interest. A common finding of HAS shows a relaxed, natural sucking rate when exposed to something the infant is familiar with, like their mother’s voice, compared to an increased sucking rate around novel stimuli.[3]
Preferential-Looking Technique edit
The Preferential-Looking Techique was a breakthrough made by Robert L. Fantz in 1961.[1] In his experiments, he would show the infants in his study two different stimuli. If an infant looks at one image longer than the other, there are two things that can be inferred: the infant can see that they are two different images and that the infant is showing preference to one image in some capacity. Depending on the goal of the experiment, infants may prefer to look at the novel and more interesting stimulus or they may look at the more comforting and familiar image.[4]
Eye Tracking edit
Eye tracking is a straightforward way of looking at infants’ preferences. One example of eye tracking, using an eye tracking software, it is possible to see if infants understand commonly used nouns by tracking their eyes after they are cued with the target word.[5]
Habituation edit
Another unique way to study infants' cognition is through habituation, which is the process of repeatedly showing a stimulus to an infant until they give no response[6]. Then, when infants are presented with a novel stimulus, they show a response. This violation of expectation reveals patterns of cognition and perception[6]. Using this study method, many different cognitive and perceptual ideas can be studied. Looking time is a common measure of habituation. Looking time is studied by recording how long an infant looks at a stimulus until they are habituated to that stimulus. Then, researchers record if an infant becomes dishabituated to a novel stimulus. This method can be used to measure preferences infants, including aesthetic preferences for certain colors[7]. Additionally, other discriminatory tasks can be studied, including auditory discrimination between different musical excerpts[8].
Brain Imaging edit
Another way that children are studied is through brain imaging technology[9]. One example used a lot in child development studies is Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI). These machines can be used to track brain activity, growth, and connectivity in children[9][10] Brain development can be tracked from when a child is a fetus with this new technology[10]. Another common type of brain imaging can be collected with electroencephalography (EEG)[11]. This technology can be used to diagnose seizures and encephalopathy, but considering conceptual age of the infant is important for analyzing the results[11].
Ethical Considerations edit
Most of the ethical challenges that exist in studies with adults exist within children. However, there are some notable differences in ethical research that should be addressed when designing studies for children[12][13]. An important consideration is that children should give their consent to participate in research. Because of the inherent power structure in most research settings, researchers must consider study designs that protect children from feeling coerced. Children are not allowed to give consent, so parents must give their informed consent for children to participate in research[12]. Children can give their assent, which should be reliably checked by both verbal and nonverbal cues throughout their participation[12]. Be mindful of different Institutional Review Board (IRB) expectations relating to studies with infants, children, and minors when planning a study.[14]
References edit
- ^ a b c Siegler, Robert S. (2020). How children develop. Elizabeth T. Gershoff, Jenny Saffran, Nancy Eisenberg, Campbell Leaper (Sixth edition ed.). New York, New York. ISBN 978-1-319-18456-8. OCLC 1137233012.
{{cite book}}:|edition=has extra text (help)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) - ^ Byers-Heinlein, Krista (2014), "High-Amplitude Sucking Procedure", Encyclopedia of Language Development, Thousand Oaks: SAGE Publications, Inc., pp. 263–264, retrieved 2022-05-08
- ^ Butler, Samantha C.; O'Sullivan, Laura P.; Shah, Bhavesh L.; Berthier, Neil E. (November 2014). "Preference for infant-directed speech in preterm infants". Infant Behavior & Development. 37: 505–511.
- ^ Matsuda, Yoshi-Taka; Okamoto, Yoko; Ida, Misako; Okanoya, Kazuo; Myowa-Yamakoshi, Masako (June 13, 2012). "Infants prefer the faces of strangers or mothers to morphed faces: an uncanny valley between social novelty and familiarity". Biology Letters. 8: 725–728.
- ^ Bergelson, Elika; Swingley, Daniel (February 28, 2012). "At 6–9 months, human infants know the meanings of many common nouns". National Academy of Sciences. 109: 3253–3258.
- ^ a b Daum, Mortiz M. (2017). Hopkins, Brian; Geangu, Elena; Linkenauger, Sally (eds.). Cognitive development during infancy. Cambridge University Press. pp. 277–287.
- ^ Skelton, A.E.; Franklin, A (2020). "Infants look longer at colours that adults like when colours are highly saturated". Psychonomic Bulletin & Review. 27: 78–85.
- ^ Flom, Ross; Pick, Anne D (December 2012). "Dynamics of infant habituation: infants' discrimination of musical excerpts". Infant Behavior & Development. 35: 697–704.
- ^ a b Thomason, Moriah E. (2017). Hopkins, Brian; Geangu, Elena; Linkenauger, Sally (eds.). Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp. 121–128.
{{cite book}}:|work=ignored (help) - ^ a b Giedd, Jay N; Raznahan, Armin; Alexander-Bloch, Aaron; Schmitt, Eric; Gogtay, Nitin; Rapoport, Judith L (2015). "Child Psychiatry Branch of the National Institute of Mental Health Longitudinal Structural Magnetic Resonance Imaging Study of Human Brain Development". Neuropsychopharmacology. 40: 43–49.
- ^ a b Louis, Erik K. St; Frey, Lauren C.; Britton, Jeffrey W.; Frey, Lauren C.; Hopp, Jennifer L.; Korb, Pearce; Koubeissi, Mohamad Z.; Lievens, William E.; Pestana-Knight, Elia M. (2016). The Developmental EEG: Premature, Neonatal, Infant, and Children. American Epilepsy Society.
- ^ a b c Aldridge, Jo (2015). Participatory research: Working with vulnerable groups in research and practice. Bristol University Press. pp. 31–64.
- ^ Barbosa, Smith, Belem, Justin (2017). "Ethical Challenges in Researching with Children: An Application Adopting a Mixed Method Approach". Advances in Inteeligent Systems and Computing. 621: 91–100.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) - ^ Striano, Tricia (2016). Doing developmental research : a practical guide. New York. ISBN 978-1-4625-2442-6. OCLC 911798622.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link)