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Owlet moths
Amphipoea oculea
Panthea coenobita
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Lepidoptera
Superfamily: Noctuoidea
Family: Noctuidae
Latreille, 1809
Subfamilies

Acontiinae
Acronictinae
Aediinae
Agaristinae
Amphipyrinae
Bagisarinae
Balsinae
Bryophilinae
Condicinae
Cuculliinae
Dilobinae
Dyopsinae
Eucocytiinae
Eustrotiinae
Heliothinae
Metoponiinae
Noctuinae
Pantheinae
Plusiinae
Raphiinae

Diversity
About 11,772

The Noctuidae, commonly known as Owlet moths, Cutworms or Armyworms, is the most controversial family in the superfamily Noctuoidea especially because many of its clades are constantly changing along with the other families of Noctuoidea[1][2][3]. It was considered the largest family in Lepidoptera for a long time, but after regrouping Lymantriinae,Catocalinae and Calpinae within Erebidae, which gave it this title now[4]. Currently, Noctuidae is now the second largest family in Noctuoidea with about 1,089 genera and 11,772 species[5]. However, it is still unfinished as more changes continue to appear between these two families.

Description

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Noctuidae wings venation

Adult: Noctuid adults most have drab wings, but some subfamilies as Acronictinae and Agaristinae are very colorful especially those form Tropical regions (e.g. Baorisa hieroglyphica). Also they are characterized by a structure in the metathorax called nodular sclerite or epaulette, which separate the tympanum and the conjunctiva in the tympanal organ. And it also has another function that is keep out the parasites (Acari) from tympanal cavity. Another characteristic in his group is trifine hindwing venation by reduction or absence of the second medial vein (M2)[6].

Larva: Commonly green or brown however, some species present brightly colors such as the Camphorweed cucullia moth (Cucullia alfarata). Most are pudgy and smooth with rounded short heads and few setae, but there are some exceptions in some subfamilies (e.g. Acronictinae and Pantheinae)[7].

Pupa: the pupae are often from shiny brown to dark brown. When they just pupate are bright brownish orange, but after few days start to get darker.

Eggs: they vary in colors, but all have a spherical shape. 

Etymology

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The word Noctuidae is derived from the name of the type genus Noctua which is from the Latin word Noctudæ for “Owl,” and the patronymic suffix -idae used typically to form taxonomic family names in animals[8].

The common word “owlet” to refers a small or young owl. Otherwise, the terms “armyworms” and “cutworms” are based on the behavior of this group which occur in destructive swarms and cut the stems of plants[9].

Ecology

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Distribution and Diversity

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Setaceous hebrew character

This family is cosmopolitan and it can be found worldwide except in the Antarctic region. However, some species such as the Setaceous hebrew character (Xestia c-nigrum) can be found in the Arctic Circle specifically in the Yukon territory of western Canada with an elevation 1,702 m above sea level, where the temperature fluctuates between 23/-25 °C (73/-13 °F)[10]. Many species of Dart moths have been recorded in high elevations as high as 4,000 m above sea level (e.g. Xestia elisabetha)[11].

Among the places where the number of species has been counted are North America and Northern Mexico with about 2,522 species, and 1,576 species are found in Europe, while the other species are sorted in the worldwide[12][13][14][15][16].

Mutualism

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The Lychnis moth caterpillar feeding on the seeds of Red campion (Silene dioica).

Members of Noctuidae, like other butterflies and moths, perform an important role in plant pollination. However, some species have developed a stronger connection with their host plants. For example, the Lychnis moth (Hadena bicruris) has a strange mutualistic relationship with pink or carnation plants (Caryophyllaceae)[17].

 
The Eight spotted forester moth (Alypia octomaculata) pudding on water from a leaf of Firebush (Croton lucidus)

Food guilds

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Herbivory:  It well-known that caterpillars feed on plants, flowers and fruits. However, many noctuids have a particular interest for toxic plants because they are able to withstand the chemical defenses of plants, as in the case of the Splendid brocade (Lacanobia splendens) that is capable to feed on Cowbane (Cicuta virosa), one of the most poisonous plant on the world.

Predatory and Cannibalism: During the larval stage, some cutworms prefer to feed on other insects. One of them is the Shivering Pinion (Lithophane querquera), which commonly feed on other Lepidoptera larvae[18]. Moreover, it is well-known that larvae of the Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) like to eat their siblings[19].

Nectarivory and Puddling: Like many Lepidoptera, members Noctuids feed on the nectar of flowers. They also have other food resources such as dung, urea and mud among others.

Behavior

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Courtship

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Like the other members of the order Lepidoptera, courtship consists of a set of movements, where the female evaluates the male skills[20].

Most noctuid moths have organs known as hairy pedicels and pheromone glands, which are important to release pheromones or chemical compounds to attract males or females. It is well known that pheromones in female are to call males, but the compounds in males are still under study[21][22][20].

Reproduction

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Lesser yellow underwing

Noctuid moths commonly begin the reproductive season from spring to fall, and mostly are multivoltine such as the Eastern Panthea moth (Panthea furcilla) that reproduces over the year. Nevertheless, some species have just one brood of offspring (univoltine); among the best known is the Lesser yellow underwing (Noctua comes).

Defense

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The Spanish moth feeding on Amaryllis sp.

This group has a wide range of both chemical and physical defenses. Among the chemical defenses three types stand out. First, the pyrrolizidine alkaloid sequestration usually present in Arctiinae is also found in few species of noctuids including the Spanish moth (Xanthopastis timais)[23]. Another chemical defense is formic acid production, which was thought was only present in Notodontidae, but later was found in caterpillars of Trachosea champa[24]. Finally, the last type of chemical defense is regurgitation of plant compounds often used by many insects, but the Cabbage Palm Caterpillar (Litoprosopus futilis) produce a toxin called toluquinone that deters predators.

On the other hand, the main physical defense in caterpillars and adult is mimicry. Most owlet moths have drab colors with a variety of patterns suitable to camouflage their bodies. The second physical defense consists in thousands of secondary setae that surround the body. The subfamilies that present this mechanism are Pantheinae and Acronictinae. The third is aposematism, represented by species of Cucullinae[25]. Finally, all adults have another mechanism for defense and it is a tympanal organ available to hear the echolocation spread out by bats so they can avoid them[26].

Human Importance

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The old world bollworm caterpillar feeding on a strawberry

Agriculture

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Many species of owlet moths are considered an agricultural problem around the world. Their larvae are typically known as "cutworms" or "armyworms" due to enormous swarms that destroy crops, orchards and garden every year. The old world bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera) produce loses in agriculture every year that exceed US$2 billion[27].

Systematics

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Since molecular analysis began to play a larger role in systematics, the structure of many Lepidoptera groups has been changing and Noctuidae is not an exception. Most recent studies have shown that Noctuidae sensu stricto is a monophyletic group mainly based on trifine venation. However there are some clades within Noctuidae sensu lato that have to be studied. This taxonomic division represent the subfamilies, tribes and subtribes considered so far[1][12].

References

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  1. ^ a b Regier, Jerome C.; Mitter, Charles; Mitter, Kim; Cummings, Michael P.; Bazinet, Adam L.; Hallwachs, Winifred; Janzen, Daniel H.; Zwick, Andreas (2017-01-01). "Further progress on the phylogeny of Noctuoidea (Insecta: Lepidoptera) using an expanded gene sample". Systematic Entomology. 42 (1): 82–93. doi:10.1111/syen.12199. ISSN 1365-3113. S2CID 89471397.
  2. ^ Lafontaine, J. Donald; Fibiger, Michael (2006-10-01). "Revised higher classification of the Noctuoidea (Lepidoptera)". The Canadian Entomologist. 138 (5): 610–635. doi:10.4039/n06-012. ISSN 1918-3240. S2CID 86122393.
  3. ^ Michael, Fibiger; Donald, Lafontaine, J.; H., Hacker, Hermann (2005-01-01). A review of the higher classification of the Noctuoidea (Lepidoptera) with special reference to the Holarctic fauna. Beilage zu Band 11 : (Notodontidae, Nolidae, Arctiidae, Lymantriidae, Erebidae, Micronoctuidae, and Noctuidae) : Gesamtinhaltsverzeichnis Bände 1-10 : Indices Bände 1-10. Delta-Druck und Verlag Peks. ISBN 3938249013. OCLC 928877801.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  4. ^ Zahiri, Reza; Holloway, Jeremy D.; Kitching, Ian J.; Lafontaine, J. Donald; Mutanen, Marko; Wahlberg, Niklas (2012-01-01). "Molecular phylogenetics of Erebidae (Lepidoptera, Noctuoidea)". Systematic Entomology. 37 (1): 102–124. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.2011.00607.x. ISSN 1365-3113. S2CID 84249695.
  5. ^ Animal biodiversity: An outline of higher-level classification and survey of taxonomic richness. Magnolia Press. 2011-01-01. ISBN 9781869778491.
  6. ^ Fibiger, Michael (2007-01-01). The Lepidoptera of Israel. Coronet Books Incorporated. ISBN 9789546422880.
  7. ^ Wagner, David L. (2010-04-25). Caterpillars of Eastern North America: A Guide to Identification and Natural History. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-1400834143.
  8. ^ Speidel, W.; Naumann, C. M. (2004-11-01). "A survey of family‐group names in noctuoid moths (Insecta: Lepidoptera)". Systematics and Biodiversity. 2 (2): 191–221. doi:10.1017/S1477200004001409. ISSN 1477-2000. S2CID 85652010.
  9. ^ E., Rice, Marlin (2004-01-01). "Armyworm defoliating young corn". {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  10. ^ Lafontaine, J. D; Wood, D. M. "Butterflies and moths of the Yukon" (PDF). http://hocking.biology.ualberta.ca. {{cite web}}: External link in |website= (help)CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  11. ^ Gyulai, P.; Ronkay, L.; Saldaitis, A. (2013-11-04). "Two new Xestia Hübner, 1818 species from China (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae)". Zootaxa. 3734 (1): 96–100. doi:10.11646/zootaxa.3734.1.12. ISSN 1175-5334. PMID 25277901.
  12. ^ a b Schmidt, B. Christian; Lafontaine, J. Donald (2010-03-19). Annotated Check List of the Noctuoidea (Insecta, Lepidoptera) of North America North of Mexico. PenSoft Publishers LTD. ISBN 9789546425355.
  13. ^ Schmidt, Bjorn Christian; Lafontaine, J. Donald (2011-11-24). Contributions to the Systematics of New World Macro-moths III. PenSoft Publishers LTD. ISBN 9789546426185.
  14. ^ Lafontaine, Donald; Schmidt, Christian (2013-06-02). "Additions and corrections to the check list of the Noctuoidea (Insecta, Lepidoptera) of North America north of Mexico". ZooKeys (264): 227–236. doi:10.3897/zookeys.264.4443. ISSN 1313-2970. PMC 3668382. PMID 23730184.
  15. ^ Lafontaine, J. Donald; Schmidt, B. Christian (2015-10-15). "Additions and corrections to the check list of the Noctuoidea (Insecta, Lepidoptera) of North America north of Mexico III". ZooKeys (527): 127–147. doi:10.3897/zookeys.527.6151. ISSN 1313-2989. PMC 4668890. PMID 26692790.
  16. ^ Michael, Fibiger; Donald, Lafontaine, J.; H., Hacker, Hermann (2005-01-01). A review of the higher classification of the Noctuoidea (Lepidoptera) with special reference to the Holarctic fauna. Beilage zu Band 11 : (Notodontidae, Nolidae, Arctiidae, Lymantriidae, Erebidae, Micronoctuidae, and Noctuidae) : Gesamtinhaltsverzeichnis Bände 1-10 : Indices Bände 1-10. Delta-Druck und Verlag Peks. ISBN 3938249013. OCLC 928877801.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  17. ^ Bopp, Sigrun; Gottsberger, Gerhard (2004-01-01). "Importance of Silene latifolia ssp. alba and S. dioica (Caryophyllaceae) as Host Plants of the Parasitic Pollinator Hadena bicruris (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae)". Oikos. 105 (2): 221–228. doi:10.1111/j.0030-1299.2004.12625.x. JSTOR 3548083.
  18. ^ D.F., Schweitzer (1979-01-01). "Predatory behavior in Lithophane querquera and other spring caterpillars". Journal. ISSN 0024-0966.
  19. ^ Chapman, Jason W.; Williams, Trevor; Martínez, Ana M.; Cisneros, Juan; Caballero, Primitivo; Cave, Ronald D.; Goulson, Dave (2000-01-01). "Does Cannibalism in Spodoptera frugiperda (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) Reduce the Risk of Predation?". Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology. 48 (4): 321–327. doi:10.1007/s002650000237. JSTOR 4601817. S2CID 3947934.
  20. ^ a b Birch, Martin (1970-05-01). "Pre-courtship use of abdominal brushes by the nocturnal moth, Phlogophora meticulosa (L.) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)". Animal Behaviour. 18, Part 2: 310–316. doi:10.1016/S0003-3472(70)80043-4.
  21. ^ Heath, R. R.; Mclaughlin, J. R.; Proshold, F.; Teal, P. E. A. (1991-03-01). "Periodicity of Female Sex Pheromone Titer and Release in Heliothis subflexa and H. virescens (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)". Annals of the Entomological Society of America. 84 (2): 182–189. doi:10.1093/aesa/84.2.182. ISSN 0013-8746.
  22. ^ Ronkay, L. (2005). "Revision of the genus Lophoterges Hampson, 1906 (s. l.) (Lepidoptera, Noctuidae, Cuculliinae). Part II. The genus Lophoterges s. str". Acta Zoologica Academiae Scientiarum Hungaricae. 51: 1–57.
  23. ^ Vilanova, Cristina; Baixeras, Joaquín; Latorre, Amparo; Porcar, Manuel (2016-01-01). "The Generalist Inside the Specialist: Gut Bacterial Communities of Two Insect Species Feeding on Toxic Plants Are Dominated by Enterococcus sp". Frontiers in Microbiology. 7: 1005. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2016.01005. ISSN 1664-302X. PMC 4923067. PMID 27446044.
  24. ^ Nakamura, M. (1998). "The eversible cervical gland and the chemical component of its secretion in noctuid larvae" (PDF). Transactions of the Lepidopterological Society of Japan. 49: 85–92.
  25. ^ Wagner, David L. (2011-01-01). Owlet Caterpillars of Eastern North America. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0691150420.
  26. ^ Kristensen, Niels (2003-01-01). Vol 2: Morphology, Physiology, and Development. Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110893724.
  27. ^ Narayanamma, V. Lakshmi; Sharma, H. C.; Gowda, C. L. L.; Sriramulu, M. (2007-12-01). "Incorporation of lyophilized leaves and pods into artificial diets to assess the antibiosis component of resistance to pod borer Helicoverpa armigera (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) in chickpea". International Journal of Tropical Insect Science. 27 (3–4): 191–198. doi:10.1017/S1742758407878374. ISSN 1742-7592. S2CID 86757646.
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On the UF / IFAS Featured Creatures Web site:

Family Noctuidae at Lepidoptera.pro

Images of Noctuidae species in New Zealand

Moth Photographers Group-Mississippi State University

Jose I. Martinez (talk) 22:52, 30 March 2017 (UTC)

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