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User:Joanneguan/Hysterotomy

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A hysterotomy is an incision in the uterus.[1] This surgical incision has several medical uses, such as during termination of pregnancy in the first trimester (or abortion), delivering the fetus during caesarean section, to gain access and perform surgery on a fetus during pregnancy to correct birth defects, and during resuscitation performed if cardiac arrest occurs during pregnancy and it is necessary to remove the fetus from the uterus.

There are several types of incisions that can be made, a midline vertical incision and a low transverse incision being the most common. The incision is made using a scalpel and is about 1-2 cm long, but can be longer depending on the procedure that is performed.[2] Other types of incisions are low transverse incision with T-extension in the midline, low transverse incision with J-extension, and low transverse incision with U-extension, and these are used when low transverse incisions do not provide enough space in order to remove the contents in the uterus.

This incision also comes with possible risks and complications both when the incision is made and during repair, including blood loss (possibly leading to anemia), wound infection, fertility problems, premature labor, postoperative pain, and many others.[3] In addition, a rare form of ectopic pregnancy known as scar ectopic pregnancy can occur. This is when there is abnormal implantation of an embryo onto the scar of the uterus. There is an increased risk of this complication occurring due to trauma from previous procedures utilizing hysterotomies, such as caesarean section and dilation, though the mechanism is unknown.[4]

Uses

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Hysterotomy abortion

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A hysterotomy is used to remove a fetus from the uterus, similar to a procedure known as caesarean section, in order to terminate a pregnancy during the first trimester (or first three months). It is typically used as last resort if dilation and curettage, dilation and electric vacuum aspiration, or manual vacuum aspiration fails to work.[5]

 
Caesarean section operation

Caesarean section

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Though fetal delivery through caesarean section is a very common surgery done in the world, it may come with several risks including bleeding, infection, thromboembolism, and soft-tissue injury. During a caesarean section, a hysterotomy is utilized to make an incision in the uterus and remove the fetus.[6] Gestational age, newborn birth weight, dangerous presenting risks to mother/fetus are all taken into account on whether or not a classic hysterotomy or low transverse incision will be made. [7]

Resuscitative Hysterotomy

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A resuscitative hysterotomy is performed during or near the occurrence of a cardiac arrest, in which an incision is made to remove the fetus from the uterus. This is done in order to save the fetus, as well as to revive the body in which the fetus was taken from.[8] The primary goal is to save the mother, in order to insure the highest survival rate, the goal of fetus delivery time is within 5 minutes after the patient goes under arrest and/or 2 cycles of CPR. [9] During pregnancy, the pregnant uterus may compress the inferior vena cava and abdominal aorta, causing reduced blood flow to the uterus and to the pregnant person. Removing the fetus can restore blood flow to the pregnant person.[10]

Fetal surgery

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Hysterotomy is a technique used during fetal surgery to access the fetus in the pregnant uterus in order to treat a birth defect such as spina bifida.[11] A standard hysterotomy remains the gold-standard for the closure of a fetal spina bifida due to it being the most safe and effective when compared to mini-hysterectomies and a percutaneous two-layer fetoscopy.[12] A mini-hysterotomy procedure is favored for extreme cases of preterm delivery and any complications regarding maternal, fetal, and/or neonatal because of the reduced risks and complications.[13]

Risks and complications

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The technique used to repair the hysterotomy is dependent on the surgeon's preference. The method of repair and type of suture affects the risks and complications of receiving a hysterotomy. Hysterotomy incision repair can be done within the intraperitoneal space (in situ) or the uterus can be temporarily removed for repair (exteriorization). Both types of uterine positioning for repair yielded similar lengths of hospital stay, risk of infection, and estimated blood loss. Recovery following uterine exteriorization was found to induce more nausea[14] and be more painful, requiring more post-operative analgesia. Return of bowel function was faster with in situ repair.[15] It was found that between unlocked single-layer closure and double-layer closure, there is no difference in risk of uterine rupture[16], however the risk of rupture is increased with a locked single-layer suture.[17]

Following the repair of the incision, a scar defect may form, which is defined as a thinning of uterine muscle at the incision site. These uterine scar defects are associated with increased risk of uterine rupture and scar separation.[18][19] Scar defects may increase the risk of complications such as abnormal bleeding, pain, ectopic pregnancy, and infertility.[20]

During caesarean section

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Caesarean sections require a large incision of the uterus, which can lead to complications such as blood loss, postoperative pain, anaemia due to continuing blood loss, fever and possible wound infection, breastfeeding issues, difficulty passing urine, future fertility problems, and/or possible complications in future pregnancies including uterine rupture.[21]

Fetal Surgery

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In fetal surgery, without inhibition of uterine contractions, uterine irritability and premature labor are complications that occur very frequently in hysterotomy cases.[22] Preterm birth and early membrane rupture (PPROM) are common risks for fetal therapies. Fetoscopic surgery, which minimizes the damage to the uterus, is preferred to mitigate risks and complications. Membrane sealing and fixation has been investigated for reducing PPROM risk, but it has not been found to be clinically beneficial.[23]

Scar Ectopic Pregnancy

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Scar ectopic pregnancy is a rare form of ectopic pregnancy, however, when it does occur it causes complications in pregnancy such as abnormal uterine bleeding and uterine rupture.The mechanism of how scar ectopic pregnancy still remains unknown. However, the possibility that defects may form to the scarring from previous procedures/traumas such as caesarean section, dilation, hysterotomy, abnormal placentation can cause scar ectopic pregnancy.[4]

Surgical Abortion

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There are two categories of complications with surgical abortions, minor and major. Minor complications are procedural pain, bleeding, infection and common anesthesia complications. The more serious and major complications include hemorrhage, sepsis, peritonitis, deep vein thrombosis and death.[24]

Types

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Low transverse incision and midline vertical incision

There are many different types of hysterotomies depending on the location and direction of the incision. Typically, a low transverse incision is preferred during a caesarean section. This area of the uterus has less vasculature and therefore provides lower risk of hemorrhage during the procedure for the patient. Incisions in the lower area of the uterus is also associated with lower risks of uterine rupture. There may be times in which the lower transverse incision does not provide adequate space and therefore, expansions of the low transverse incisions have lead to the creation of the low transverse incision with T-extension in the midline, low transverse incision with J-extension, and low transverse incision with U-extension.[3] A low vertical incision and a midline incision, also known as a classic caesarean incision, may be preferred during a labor that is preterm. Since the lower uterine segment is not yet fully developed during a preterm labor, these 2 incisions are preferred in order to provide adequate space for manipulations during delivery of the fetus. A low transverse incision would not provide adequate space and could entrap the fetal head therefore risking intercranial hemorrhage, morbidity and mortality for the fetus.[2] A midline incision may be preferred as well when the fetus lies transversely across the patient's uterus or if the placenta lies in the area where the low transverse incision is made. In practice, however, the midline incision is rarely used.[3] Other hysterotomy incisions include a high transverse incision and a fundal incision.[2]

Techniques

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Incision

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A hysterotomy can be performed by various methods. Typically a small incision is made with a scalpel about 1-2cm long. During a blunt expansion, the incision is expanded by the surgeon's index fingers or other blunt dissection tools. During a sharp expansion, bandage scissors are used to cut a larger incision.[25] Some professionals will say that the sharp expansion allows for a more controlled entry into the uterus and a faster delivery of the fetus. Other professionals will say the blunt expansion allows for reduced risk of hemorrhaging and improves healing for the patient.[3]

Closure

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A hysterotomy is completed by closing the uterus either by using a stapler or by suture, no significant differences have been noted to show one technique takes precedent over another. [26] The muscular outer layer of the uterus in all samples of closures showed some inflammation and thickening/scarring of the tissue.[27] In the event a midline incision is used, three layers of sutures are performed to repair the uterine wall. An interrupted suture is used to close the first and second layer and a continuous locking suture or figure-of-eight suture is used to close the third layer.[2] Since in practice the low transverse incision is typically made, the incision is also typically closed with two layers of sutures. Though, there is a debate on whether the suture should be close with a single layer or a double layer of sutures. If promoting a double layer of sutures, one would say it can promote improved healing, hemostasis and less risk of uterine rupture in the next pregnancy. If promoting a single layer of sutures, one would say it allows for less operation time, less tissue disruption and decreased exposure to foreign suture material.[3]

References

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Joanne-1-6

Mona- 7-12

Arbelena- 13-18

Sharon- 19-25

  1. ^ Sung, Sharon; Mahdy, Heba (2022), "Cesarean Section", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 31536313, retrieved 2022-07-28
  2. ^ a b c d Kan, Amano (2020-02-06). "Classical Cesarean Section". The Surgery Journal. 6 (Suppl 2): S98–S103. doi:10.1055/s-0039-3402072. ISSN 2378-5128. PMC 7396476. PMID 32760792.
  3. ^ a b c d e Dodd, Jodie M.; Anderson, Elizabeth R.; Gates, Simon; Grivell, Rosalie M. (2014-07-22). "Surgical techniques for uterine incision and uterine closure at the time of caesarean section". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (7): CD004732. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004732.pub3. ISSN 1469-493X. PMID 25048608.
  4. ^ a b Patel, Madhuri Arvind (2015-12). "Scar Ectopic Pregnancy". The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology of India. 65 (6): 372–375. doi:10.1007/s13224-015-0817-3. ISSN 0971-9202. PMC 4666214. PMID 26663994. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link)
  5. ^ Kulier, R.; Fekih, A.; Hofmeyr, G. J.; Campana, A. (2001). "Surgical methods for first trimester termination of pregnancy". The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (4): CD002900. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD002900. ISSN 1469-493X. PMC 8407039. PMID 11687167.
  6. ^ Bhat, A.; Jaffer, D.; Keasler, P.; Kamath, K.; Kelly, J.; Singh, P. M. (2022). "Uterine externalization versus in situ repair of hysterotomy during cesarean delivery: a systematic review, equivalence meta-analysis, and trial sequential analysis". International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia. 50. doi:10.1016/j.ijoa.2022.103271. ISSN 0959-289X. PMID 35299027.
  7. ^ Osmundson, Sarah S.; Garabedian, Matthew J.; Lyell, Deirdre J. (2013-10). "Risk Factors for Classical Hysterotomy by Gestational Age". Obstetrics & Gynecology. 122 (4): 845–850. doi:10.1097/AOG.0b013e3182a39731. ISSN 0029-7844. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  8. ^ Rose, Carl H.; Faksh, Arij; Traynor, Kyle D.; Cabrera, Daniel; Arendt, Katherine W.; Brost, Brian C. (2015). "Challenging the 4- to 5-minute rule: from perimortem cesarean to resuscitative hysterotomy". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 213 (5): 653–653.e1. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2015.07.019 – via Elsevier.
  9. ^ Cobb, Benjamin; Lipman, Steven (2017-08). "Perimortem Cesarean Delivery for Maternal Cardiac Arrest". Oxford Medicine Online. doi:10.1093/med/9780190226459.003.0042. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  10. ^ Soskin, Philippa N.; Yu, Jennifer (2019). "Resuscitation of the Pregnant Patient". Emergency Medicine Clinics of North America. Obstetric and Gynecologic Emergencies. 37 (2): 351–363. doi:10.1016/j.emc.2019.01.011. ISSN 0733-8627.
  11. ^ Johnson, Mark P.; Bennett, Kelly A.; Rand, Larry; Burrows, Pamela K.; Thom, Elizabeth A.; Howell, Lori J.; Farrell, Jody A.; Dabrowiak, Mary E.; Brock, John W.; Farmer, Diana L.; Adzick, N. Scott (2016). "The Management of Myelomeningocele Study: obstetrical outcomes and risk factors for obstetrical complications following prenatal surgery". American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 215 (6): 778.e1–778.e9. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2016.07.052. ISSN 1097-6868. PMC 5896767. PMID 27496687.
  12. ^ Joyeux, L.; De Bie, F.; Danzer, E.; Russo, F. M.; Javaux, A.; Peralta, C. F. A.; De Salles, A. A. F.; Pastuszka, A.; Olejek, A.; Van Mieghem, T.; De Coppi, P. (2020). "Learning curves of open and endoscopic fetal spina bifida closure: systematic review and meta‐analysis". Ultrasound in Obstetrics & Gynecology. 55 (6): 730–739. doi:10.1002/uog.20389. ISSN 0960-7692 – via Wiley.
  13. ^ Botelho, Rafael Davi; Imada, Vanessa; Rodrigues da Costa, Karina Jorge; Watanabe, Luiz Carlos; Rossi Júnior, Ronaldo; De Salles, Antônio Afonso Ferreira; Romano, Edson; Peralta, Cleisson Fábio Andrioli (2017). "Fetal Myelomeningocele Repair through a Mini-Hysterotomy". Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy. 42 (1): 28–34. doi:10.1159/000449382. ISSN 1015-3837.
  14. ^ Bolla, Daniele; Schöning, Andrea; Drack, Gero; Hornung, René (2010-05-01). "Technical aspects of the cesarean section". Gynecological Surgery. 7 (2): 127–132. doi:10.1007/s10397-010-0560-9. ISSN 1613-2084.
  15. ^ Bhat, A.; Jaffer, D.; Keasler, P.; Kamath, K.; Kelly, J.; Singh, P. M. (2022-05-01). "Uterine externalization versus in situ repair of hysterotomy during cesarean delivery: a systematic review, equivalence meta-analysis, and trial sequential analysis". International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia. 50: 103271. doi:10.1016/j.ijoa.2022.103271. ISSN 0959-289X.
  16. ^ Dodd, Jodie M; Anderson, Elizabeth R; Gates, Simon; Grivell, Rosalie M (2014-07-22). Cochrane Pregnancy and Childbirth Group (ed.). "Surgical techniques for uterine incision and uterine closure at the time of caesarean section". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD004732.pub3.
  17. ^ Roberge, Stéphanie; Chaillet, Nils; Boutin, Amélie; Moore, Lynne; Jastrow, Nicole; Brassard, Normand; Gauthier, Robert J.; Hudic, Igor; Shipp, Thomas D.; Weimar, Charlotte H.E.; Fatusic, Zlatan (2011). "Single- versus double-layer closure of the hysterotomy incision during cesarean delivery and risk of uterine rupture". International Journal of Gynecology & Obstetrics. 115 (1): 5–10. doi:10.1016/j.ijgo.2011.04.013.
  18. ^ Tanos, Vasilios; Toney, Zara Abigail (2019-08-01). "Uterine scar rupture - Prediction, prevention, diagnosis, and management". Best Practice & Research Clinical Obstetrics & Gynaecology. Advances in Reproductive Surgery. 59: 115–131. doi:10.1016/j.bpobgyn.2019.01.009. ISSN 1521-6934.
  19. ^ Kurdoglu, Zehra; Kurdoglu, Mertihan. "The Risk of Uterine Rupture in Labour Induction of Women With Previous Cesarean Delivery". Crescent Journal of Medical and Biological Sciences. 3 (1). ISSN 2148-9696.
  20. ^ Tower, Amanda M.; Frishman, Gary N. (2013-09-01). "Cesarean Scar Defects: An Underrecognized Cause of Abnormal Uterine Bleeding and Other Gynecologic Complications". Journal of Minimally Invasive Gynecology. 20 (5): 562–572. doi:10.1016/j.jmig.2013.03.008. ISSN 1553-4650.
  21. ^ Dodd, Jodie M; Anderson, Elizabeth R; Gates, Simon; Grivell, Rosalie M (2014-07-22). "Surgical techniques for uterine incision and uterine closure at the time of caesarean section". Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. doi:10.1002/14651858.cd004732.pub3. ISSN 1465-1858.
  22. ^ Longaker, M. T.; Golbus, M. S.; Filly, R. A.; Rosen, M. A.; Chang, S. W.; Harrison, M. R. (1991-02-13). "Maternal outcome after open fetal surgery. A review of the first 17 human cases". JAMA. 265 (6): 737–741. ISSN 0098-7484. PMID 1990189.
  23. ^ Valenzuela, Ignacio; van der Merwe, Johannes; De Catte, Luc; Devlieger, Roland; Deprest, Jan; Lewi, Liesbeth (2020). "Foetal therapies and their influence on preterm birth". Seminars in Immunopathology. 42 (4): 501–514. doi:10.1007/s00281-020-00811-2. ISSN 1863-2300.
  24. ^ Sajadi-Ernazarova, Karima R.; Martinez, Christopher L. (2022), "Abortion Complications", StatPearls, Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing, PMID 28613544, retrieved 2022-07-26
  25. ^ Xu, Lileane Liang; Chau, Anthony Minh Tien; Zuschmann, Andrew (2013-01-01). "Blunt vs sharp uterine expansion at lower segment cesarean section delivery: a systematic review with metaanalysis". American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology. 208 (1): 62.e1–62.e8. doi:10.1016/j.ajog.2012.10.886. ISSN 0002-9378.
  26. ^ da Costa, Marcos Devanir S.; Cavalheiro, Sergio; Camargo, Nicole Cavalari; Ximenes, Renato Luis da Silveira; Barbosa, Mauricio Mendes; Moron, Antonio Fernandes (2020-09-01). "Fetal Myelomeningocele Repair: How Many Techniques Are Necessary?". World Neurosurgery. 141: 511–513. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2020.07.003. ISSN 1878-8750.
  27. ^ Ochsenbein-Kölble, Nicole; Brandt, Simone; Bode, Peter; Krähenmann, Franziska; Hüsler, Margaret; Möhrlen, Ueli; Mazzone, Luca; Meuli, Martin; Zimmermann, Roland (2019). "Clinical and Histologic Evaluation of the Hysterotomy Site and Fetal Membranes after Open Fetal Surgery for Fetal Spina Bifida Repair". Fetal Diagnosis and Therapy. 45 (4): 248–255. doi:10.1159/000488941. ISSN 1015-3837.
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