User:Jim.belk/Draft:Quadratic Form

In mathematics, a quadratic form is a homogeneous quadratic polynomial in variables x₁, ..., x_n:

$Q(x_{1},\ldots ,x_{n})=\sum _{i,j=1}^{n}a_{ij}x_{i}x_{j}\,$

For example, Q(x, y) = 3x² + 5xy + 4y² is a quadratic form in x and y. Any quadratic form may be written

$Q({\textbf {x}})={\textbf {x}}^{\text{T}}A{\textbf {x}}\,$

where A is a symmetric n × n matrix.

More generally, a quadratic form on a vector space V is a scalar-valued function on V defined by

$Q(v)=B(v,v)\,$

where B is a bilinear form (or symmetric bilinear form) on V.

---

In mathematics, a quadratic form is a homogeneous polynomial of degree two in a number of variables. The term quadratic form is also often used to refer to a quadratic space, which is a pair (V,q) where V is a vector space over a field k, and q:V → k is a quadratic form on V. For example, the distance between two points in three-dimensional Euclidean space is found by taking the square root of a quadratic form involving six variables, the three coordinates of each of the two points.

Quadratic forms in one, two, and three variables are given by:

$F(x)=ax^{2}$

$F(x,y)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cxy$

$F(x,y,z)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cz^{2}+dxy+exz+fyz$

Note that general quadratic functions and quadratic equations are not examples of quadratic forms, as they are not always homogeneous.

Any non-zero n-dimensional quadratic form defines an (n-2)-dimensional quadric in projective space. In this way one may visualize 3-dimensional quadratic forms as conic sections.

Definitions

Let V be a module over a commutative ring R; often R is a field, such as the real numbers, in which case V is a vector space.

A map Q : V → R is called a quadratic form on V if

• Q(av) = a² Q(v) for all $a\in R$ and $v\in V$, and
• B(u,v) = Q(u+v) − Q(u) − Q(v) is a bilinear form on V.

Here B is called the associated bilinear form; it is a symmetric bilinear form. Although this is a fairly general definition, it is common to assume that the ring R is a field, and that its characteristic is not 2.

Two elements u and v of V are called orthogonal if B(u, v)=0.

The kernel of the bilinear form B consists of the elements that are orthogonal to all elements of V, and the kernel of the quadratic form Q consists of all elements u of the kernel of B with Q(u)=0. If 2 is invertible then Q and its associated bilinear form B have the same kernel.

The bilinear form B is called non-singular if its kernel is 0, and the quadratic form Q is called non-singular if its kernel is 0.

The orthogonal group of a non-singular quadratic form Q is the group of automorphisms of V that preserve the quadratic form Q.

A quadratic form Q is called isotropic when there is a non-zero v in V such that $Q(v)=0$. Otherwise it is called anisotropic. A vector or a subspace of a quadratic space may also be referred to as isotropic. If $Q(V)=0$ then $Q$ is called totally singular.

Properties

Some other properties of quadratic forms:

• Q obeys the parallelogram law:

$Q(u+v)+Q(u-v)=2Q(u)+2Q(v)$

• The vectors u and v are orthogonal with respect to B if and only if

$Q(u+v)=Q(u)+Q(v)$

Symmetric bilinear forms

When the characteristic of the underlying field is not 2, a quadratic form is equivalent to a symmetric bilinear forms.

A quadratic form always yields a symmetric bilinear form (by the polarization identity), but inverting this requires dividing by 2.

Note that for any vector u ∈ V

2Q(u) = B(u,u)

so if 2 is invertible in R (when R is a field this is the same as having characteristic not 2), then we can recover the quadratic form from the symmetric bilinear form B by

Q(u) = B(u,u)/2.

When 2 is invertible this gives a 1-1 correspondence between quadratic forms on V and symmetric bilinear forms on V. If B is any symmetric bilinear form then B(u,u) is always a quadratic form. So when 2 is invertible, this can be used as the definition of a quadratic form. But if 2 is not invertible, symmetric bilinear forms and quadratic forms are different: some quadratic forms cannot be written in the form B(u,u).

Let us describe this equivalence in the 2 dimensional case. Any 2 dimensional quadratic form may be written as

$F(x,y)=ax^{2}+by^{2}+cxy$.

Let us write x = (x,y) for any vector in the vector space. The quadratic form F can be expressed in terms of matrices if we let M be the 2×2 matrix:

$M={\begin{bmatrix}a&c/2\\c/2&b\end{bmatrix}}.$

Then matrix multiplication gives us the following equality:

F(x)=x^T·M·x

Where the superscript x^T denotes the transpose of a matrix. Notice we have used that the characteristic is not 2, since we divided by 2 to define M. So we see the correspondence between 2 dimensional quadratic forms F and 2×2 symmetric matrices M, which correspond to symmetric bilinear forms.

This observation generalises quickly to forms in n variables and n×n symmetric matrices. For example, in the case of real-valued quadratic forms, the characteristic of the real numbers is 0, so real quadratic forms and real symmetric bilinear forms are the same objects, from different points of view.

If V is free of rank n we write the bilinear form B as a symmetric matrix B relative to some basis {e_i} for V. The components of B are given by $B_{ij}=B(e_{i},e_{j})$. If 2 is invertible the quadratic form Q is then given by

$2Q(u)=\mathbf {u} ^{T}\mathbf {Bu} =\sum _{i,j=1}^{n}B_{ij}u^{i}u^{j}$

where uⁱ are the components of u in this basis.

Integral quadratic form

Quadratic forms over the ring of integers are called integral quadratic forms or integral lattices. They are important in number theory and topology.

In fact there has been, historically speaking, some controversy over whether the notion of integral quadratic form should be presented with twos in (i.e., based on integral symmetric matrices) or twos out. In the notation above, therefore, the controversy is whether the term integral should imply a,b, and c are integers, or whether it should imply a, b, and c/2 are integers.

Several points of view mean that twos out has been adopted as the standard convention. Those include: (i) better understanding of the 2-adic theory of quadratic forms, the 'local' source of the difficulty; (ii) the lattice point of view, which was generally adopted by the experts in the arithmetic of quadratic forms during the 1950s; (iii) the actual needs for integral quadratic form theory in topology for intersection theory; and (iv) the Lie group and algebraic group aspects.

A quadratic form representing all positive integers is sometimes called universal. Lagrange's four-square theorem gives a specific example of such a form. Recently, the 15 and 290 theorems have completely characterized universal integral quadratic forms: if all coefficients are integers, then it represents all positive integers if and only if it represents all integers up through 290; if it has an integral matrix, it represents all positive integers if and only if it represents all integers up through 15.

Real quadratic forms

Assume $Q$ is a quadratic form defined on a real vector space.

• It is said to be positive definite (resp. negative definite) if $Q(v)>0$ (resp. $Q(v)<0$) for every vector $v\neq 0.$
• If we loosen the strict inequality to ≥ or ≤, the form $Q$ is said to be semidefinite.
• If $Q(v)<0$ for some $v$ and $Q(v)>0$ for some other $v$, $Q$ is said to be indefinite.

Let $A$ be the real symmetric matrix associated with $Q$ as described above, so for any column vector $v$ it holds that

$Q(v)=v^{T}Av.$

Then, $Q$ is positive (semi)definite, negative (semi)definite, indefinite, if and only if the matrix $A$ has the same properties (see positive-definite matrix). Ultimately, these properties can be characterized in terms of the eigenvalues of $A.$

See also

• Quadratic form (statistics)

References

• O'Meara, T. (2000). Introduction to Quadratic Forms. Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-66564-1.