The blond capuchin (Sapajus flavius) is a species of the capuchin monkeys group endemic to northeastern Brazil. This endangered species was rediscovered in 2006. It can live in exceptionally large groups of over 150 individuals, and like other capuchin species, exhibits a complex and high level of sociality. They are primarily threatened by loss of habitat due to agriculture, thus many of their fragment habitats are surrounded by sugarcane fields. In many cases this has caused sugarcane to make up a large portion of their diet, which would otherwise consist of mostly fruit and small animals. Blond capuchins are known to inhabit both the Atlantic forest and Caatinga biomes, although the habitation of the Caatinga may be a recent choice caused by human encroachment into their former habitats. Like other primate species, blond capuchins are also threatened by poaching and capture for the illegal pet trade.
Description edit
The body hair of the blond capuchin is almost uniformly golden-yellow with the notable exception of a whitish cap on the front half of the head. They have a pink-coloured face with light-brown eyes and a darkly-coloured, hairless throat flap on the ventral side of their neck. The hair on their feet and hands is much lighter compared to the rest of the coat, with their palms and souls of their feet being hairless and black in colour. The hair on the head grows towards the posterior and is not tufted. Blond capuchins are on the smaller end of capuchin monkeys, reaching a max head and body length of just 40 cm. Similar to other capuchin species, the length of the tail is nearly equivalent to the length of the head and body. The typical weight of adults ranges from 2 to 3 kilograms.[1][2]
Behaviour edit
Social Dynamics edit
Blond capuchins live in large, complex social groups that can be made up of over 150 individuals, containing both males and females.[3] Males will typically lead group movements, and will sometimes split into subgroups when foraging.[3][4] This is believed to reduce competition within the group, as their favoured food, fruits, are often found in clumps that could inspire conflict if too many individuals were to forage from the same clump at the same time.[3][5] Although both males and females exhibit parental care, females are the primary caregivers of infants and have been observed to be doing the majority of infant carrying.[4] Blond capuchins do not have a mating season, thus mothers can be observed carrying infants of different ages throughout all times of the year.[3][4] One study observed a mother carrying her dead infant, causing her to fall behind from her group and become exposed to predation, suggesting blond capuchin mothers maintain strong bonds with their children. The mother in this study was guarded by two males, also suggesting that while males may not have much of a direct role in childcare, they may help by protecting mothers and infants from threats.[6]
They use a variety of calls and behaviours to communicate with each other, with one study identifying 29 different call types. Although a few of the call types were shared with other capuchin species, the majority were unique to blond capuchins.[7]
Diet edit
Like other capuchin species, blond capuchins are diurnal and do most of their foraging during the early morning, possibly to avoid harsher midday temperatures.[3][8][9] Blond capuchins are omnivores and feed on a wide variety of food types including fruits and other vegetable parts, small vertebrates, arthropods, and sugarcane. Notably, sugarcane was found in one study to make up 50% of the blond capuchin's diet, although fruit was the preferred food when available.[5] Sugarcane is obtained by raiding the agricultural sugarcane fields that often surround the forest fragments the blond capuchins inhabit. Within these forest fragments, sugarcane is often more readily available than fruit, but requires significant processing time and effort, thus creating conflict between individuals who gather the sugarcane and individuals who would prefer to steal the processed sugarcane from the gatherers. Blond capuchins suck on the sugarcane rather than eating it, indicating that the consumption of sugarcane is providing caloric intake without much of the nutrition found in other plant foods they would normally consume.[5] A study of a different group of blond capuchins found similarly that the majority of their diet was made up of introduced plants, suggesting that the blond capuchin's ability to adapt to new food sources is a significant contributing factor to their survival in forest fragments isolated by agricultural land.[10]
Tool Use edit
While tool use is not common in blond capuchins, it has been observed in a few instances. One such instance is the occurrence of termite fishing by blond capuchins inhabiting Atlantic forests. This process involves first finding an arboreal termite nest, finding a stick, putting the stick in the nest, pulling the stick out after a short amount of time, then finally eating the termites on the stick.[11]
Blond capuchins have also been observed rubbing the toxic defensive secretions of Poecilocricus millipedes on themselves. This behaviour was performed by individuals of all ages, done mostly socially, and during mosquito season, suggesting this behaviour serves a duel purpose as a method of social bonding and a method of mosquito repellent.[12] Similar behaviours have been observed in other capuchin species, although the secretions served an anti-parasitic role. Here, individuals were observed applying the secretions to each other's hard-to-reach areas, suggesting the sociality of this behaviour may provide further health and efficacy benefits.[13]
In the Caatinga biome, blond capuchins have been observed using a 'hammer and anvil' method to crack open Manihot nuts, the hammer being a small rock and the anvil being a larger rock.[14]
Distribution edit
Blond capuchins are also known to inhabit the Caatinga biome in the state of Rio Grande do Norto located in northeastern Brazil. Although only officially discovered in the mid to late 2000s, local residents claim to have seen them for at least the past 40 years. Locals of the area claim the blond capuchins frequently raid the nearby maize fields, indicating that they may have been forced to move to and adapt to the Caatinga biome due to human activity.[15] Notably, blond capuchins living in the Caatinga spend much more of their time on the ground then populations living in the Atlantic forest.[14]
Conservation edit
Threats edit
Like many capuchin species, the primary threat facing the blond capuchin is the loss of habitat, either through deforestation in the Atlantic forest habitat or desertification in the Caatinga habitat. Deforestation caused by agriculture and human encroachment has led to reduced population sizes and has forced groups to move from their typically inhabited areas. This has further led to groups of blond capuchins overlapping with other species of capuchins they did not previously encounter, possibly leading to hybridization between the blond capuchin and other capuchin species.[16] Loss of habitat has also caused blond capuchins to live in small forest fragments where they are at higher risk of infectious diseases. One group of blond capuchins was found to have 12% of its individuals containing antibodies for Toxoplasmosis gondii, and 46% of its individuals carrying microfilariae parasites.[17]
Like other species of primates, blond capuchins are threatened by hunting and capture for the pet trade.[18] Blond capuchins have been kept as pets at least as far back as the colonial era, appearing in a 16th century fresco commissioned by Pope Leo X.[19]
See Also edit
References edit
- ^ de Oliveira, M. M.; Langguth, A. (2006), "Rediscovery of Marcgrave's capuchin monkey and designation of a neotype for Simia flavia Schreber, 1774 (Primates, Cebidae)." (PDF), Boletim do Museu Nacional: Nova Série: Zoologia, vol. 523, pp. 1–16, archived from the original (PDF) on 5 February 2009, retrieved 2009-05-04
- ^ Mendes Pontes, A. R.; Malta, A.; Asfora, P. H. (2006), "A new species of capuchin monkey, genus Cebus Erxleben (Cebidae, Primates): Found at the very brink of extinction in the Pernambuco Endemism Centre." (PDF), Zootaxa, vol. 1200, pp. 1–12, retrieved 2009-05-04
- ^ a b c d e Medeiros, Karolina; Bastos, Monique; Jones, Gareth; Bezerra, Bruna (2019-10). "Behavior, Diet, and Habitat Use by Blonde Capuchin Monkeys (Sapajus flavius) in a Coastal Area Prone to Flooding: Direct Observations and Camera Trapping". International Journal of Primatology. 40 (4–5): 511–531. doi:10.1007/s10764-019-00103-z. ISSN 0164-0291.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c Bezerra, B. M.; Bastos, M.; Souto, A.; Keasey, M. P.; Eason, P.; Schiel, N.; Jones, G. (2014-10). "Camera Trap Observations of Nonhabituated Critically Endangered Wild Blonde Capuchins, Sapajus flavius (Formerly Cebus flavius)". International Journal of Primatology. 35 (5): 895–907. doi:10.1007/s10764-014-9782-4. ISSN 0164-0291.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c Lins, Poliana Gabriele Alves de Souza; Ferreira, Renata Gonçalves (2019-01-01). "Competition during sugarcane crop raiding by blond capuchin monkeys (Sapajus flavius)". Primates. 60 (1): 81–91. doi:10.1007/s10329-018-0698-z. ISSN 1610-7365.
- ^ Andrade, Bruna M.T.; Freire-Filho, Robério; Bezerra, Bruna (2020-10-07). "The behaviours of a female blonde capuchin (Sapajus flavius) towards her dead infant". Behaviour. 157 (14–15): 1231–1238. doi:10.1163/1568539X-bja10042. ISSN 0005-7959.
- ^ Bastos, Monique; Souto, Antonio; Jones, Gareth; Eason, Perri; Bione, Camila; Schiel, Nicola; Bezerra, Bruna (2015-06). "Vocal repertoire of wild blonde capuchins ( Sapajus flavius ) and contextual use of calls: Blonde Capuchin Vocalizations". American Journal of Primatology. 77 (6): 605–617. doi:10.1002/ajp.22384.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Robinson, John G. (1984). "Diurnal Variation in Foraging and Diet in the Wedge-Capped Capuchin Cebus olivaceus". Folia Primatologica. 43 (4): 216–228. doi:10.1159/000156183. ISSN 1421-9980.
- ^ Marie, Fragaszy, Dorothy Munkenbeck, 1950- Visalberghi, Elisabetta Fedigan, Linda (2004). The complete Capuchin : the biology of the cenus Cebus. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-66116-1. OCLC 488916944.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ de Jesus Rodrigues Malta, Alexandre; Pontes, Antonio Rossano Mendes (2013), Marsh, Laura K.; Chapman, Colin A. (eds.), "The Simplified Novel Diet of the Highly Threatened Blond Capuchin in the Vanishing Pernambuco Endemism Center", Primates in Fragments: Complexity and Resilience, Developments in Primatology: Progress and Prospects, New York, NY: Springer, pp. 245–257, doi:10.1007/978-1-4614-8839-2_17, ISBN 978-1-4614-8839-2, retrieved 2021-11-09
- ^ Souto, Antonio; Bione, Camila B. C.; Bastos, Monique; Bezerra, Bruna M.; Fragaszy, Dorothy; Schiel, Nicola (2011-08-23). "Critically endangered blonde capuchins fish for termites and use new techniques to accomplish the task". Biology Letters. 7 (4): 532–535. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2011.0034. ISSN 1744-9561. PMC 3130233. PMID 21389018.
{{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ Medeiros, Karolina; Campêlo, Anielise; Maia, Artur Campos D.; Filho, Robério Freire; Do Amaral Ferraz Navarro, Daniela Maria; Chagas, Amazonas; Bastos, Monique; Jones, Gareth; Bezerra, Bruna (2020-10). "Wild Blonde Capuchins (Sapajus flavius) Perform Anointing Behaviour Using Toxic Secretions of a Millipede (Spirobolida: Rhinocricidae)". Journal of Chemical Ecology. 46 (10): 1010–1015. doi:10.1007/s10886-020-01215-0. ISSN 0098-0331.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Bowler, Mark; Messer, Emily J. E.; Claidière, Nicolas; Whiten, Andrew (2015-12). "Mutual medication in capuchin monkeys – Social anointing improves coverage of topically applied anti-parasite medicines". Scientific Reports. 5 (1): 15030. doi:10.1038/srep15030. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4601033. PMID 26456539.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ a b Garcia, Francini; Souza-Alves, João Pedro; Martins, Amely; Valença-Montenegro, Mônica (2020-11). "First steps towards conservation of the Endangered blonde capuchin monkey Sapajus flavius in the Caatinga dry forest, Brazil". Oryx. 54 (6): 762–762. doi:10.1017/S0030605320000915. ISSN 0030-6053.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Ferreira, Renata G.; Jerusalinsky, Leandro; Silva, Thiago César Farias; de Souza Fialho, Marcos; de Araújo Roque, Alan; Fernandes, Adalberto; Arruda, Fátima (2009-10). "On the occurrence of Cebus flavius (Schreber 1774) in the Caatinga, and the use of semi-arid environments by Cebus species in the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Norte". Primates. 50 (4): 357–362. doi:10.1007/s10329-009-0156-z. ISSN 0032-8332.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Lynch Alfaro, Jessica W.; Izar, Patricia; Ferreira, Renata G. (2014-08). "Capuchin monkey research priorities and urgent issues: Capuchin Research Priorities". American Journal of Primatology. 76 (8): 705–720. doi:10.1002/ajp.22269.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Bueno, Marina Galvão; Catão-Dias, José Luiz; de Oliveira Laroque, Plautino; Arruda Vasconcellos, Silvio; Ferreira Neto, José Soares; Gennari, Solange Maria; Ferreira, Fernando; Laurenti, Marcia Dalastra; Umezawa, Eufrosina Setsu; Kesper, Norival; Kirchgatter, Karin (2017-12). "Infectious Diseases in Free-Ranging Blonde Capuchins, Sapajus flavius, in Brazil". International Journal of Primatology. 38 (6): 1017–1031. doi:10.1007/s10764-017-9994-5. ISSN 0164-0291.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Filho, Robério Freire; de Castro, Carla Soraia Soares; Casanova, Catarina; Bezerra, Bruna Martins (2021-09). "Uses of nonhuman primates by humans in northeastern Brazil". Primates. 62 (5): 777–788. doi:10.1007/s10329-021-00919-5. ISSN 0032-8332.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Masseti, Marco; Veracini, Cecilia (2010-04). "The first record of Marcgrave's capuchin in Europe: South American monkeys in Italy during the early sixteenth century". Archives of Natural History. 37 (1): 91–101. doi:10.3366/E0260954109001673. ISSN 0260-9541.
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