The Kazakhs (Kazakh: Kazaktar / qɑzɑqtɑr /; unit Kazakh / qɑzɑq /) - the Turkic people, residents and the main population of Kazakhstan. They also live in regions of China adjacent to Kazakhstan (I-Kazakh autonomous region), Russia (Astrakhan region, Orenburg region, Tyumen region, Omsk region, Samara region, Saratov region, Volgograd region, Chelyabinsk region, Kurgan region, Novosibirsk region, Altai Republic , Republic of Kalmykia, Altai Territory), Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan, Kyrgyzstan. The second largest people in Mongolia, the third in Uzbekistan and the fourth in Turkmenistan. Anthropologically, the Kazakhs belong to the South Siberian race, the transition between the Mongoloid and Caucasoid large races. The language is Kazakh, a member of the Kypchak-Nogai subgroup of the Kypchak group of Turkic languages. Russian and other languages are also widely spoken. Kazakh ethnos was formed in the XV century [1].
Etymology edit
According to the basic version, the word “қазақ” in translation from the ancient Turkic language means “free, free, independent person, departed”
In Muslim written sources, the word is found in an anonymous Turkish-Arabic dictionary, compiled, probably, in Egypt, known from the manuscript of 1245 and published by M. Houtsm in Leiden in 1894, with the meaning “homeless”, “homeless”, “wanderer”, "exile"
on the map of 1793
In tsarist Russia and in Soviet times until 1925, the current Kazakhs were called Kyrghyz-Kaysaks or Kyrgyz, according to official versions, then this was done so as not to confuse Kazakhs with Cossacks.
However, in the literature and documents of the Russian state of the XVI-XVII centuries, the ethnonym Cossack was used in relation to the Kazakhs. For example, the Siberian chronicler of the first half of the XVII century, Savva Yesipov, reporting on the origin of Khan Kuchum, the Kazakh Khanate calls the "Cossack horde".
As early as 1827, A. I. Levshin argued that “the Kirghiz is the name of a completely different people ... the name Cossack ... belongs to the Kirghiz-Kaysak hordes from the beginning of their existence, they do not call themselves otherwise."
In the book of the Russian ethnographer and geographer EK Meiendorf “Journey from Orenburg to Bukhara”, written at the beginning of the 19th century, it is noted that “they [the Kazakhs] do not call themselves Kyrgyz, but call them Cossacks, which means“ rider ”- according to some, "warrior" - according to others. They claim that the Kyrgyz are called Bashkirs, but they do not know where the word came from. ”
The historian G.V. Vernadsky in his work “Mongols and Rus” (1943) indicates: “The Kazakh form, now officially adopted in the Soviet Union, is a variant of the word Cossack, which in several Turkic dialects means“ free man ”,“ free adventurer ”and , hence, “resident of the border strip”. In its basic meaning, this word was called as a group of Tatar, Ukrainian and Russian settlers (Cossacks), and the whole Central Asian people of the Kyrgyz (Kazakhs). "
On April 19, 1925, the 5th All-Kazakh Congress of Soviets adopted a resolution “On the restoration of the name“ Cossacks” for Kyrgyz nationality.” To restore the name of the Kyrgyz people phonetically as close as possible to the self-name, the 5th All-Kazakh Congress of Soviets decided: henceforth to call the Kyrgyz Cossacks. From that moment on, the historical correct ethnonym Cossack began to be used in the USSR; the Kyrgyz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was renamed the Kazak Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Until 1936, the term Kyrgyz-Cossack, used to clarify the term to avoid confusion with the Cossacks, can also be found in reference books.
The modern form of the ethnonym Kazakh was established in February 1936 shortly before the transformation of the Kazak (and from February 5, 1936 on the Kazakh) ASSR into the Kazakh SSR in December 1936.
Kazakh gene pool edit
A study of the relationship between the variability of the Y chromosome (inherited through the male line) and the clan structure of the Kazakhs (steppe aristocracy and clergy) revealed that for two genera (torus and skin) genetic studies confirmed ethnographic data on the origin of these genera: the torus (leading their genealogy from Genghis Khan) detected high frequencies of Mongolian haplogroups, and skin of the genus (leading its genealogy from missionaries from Arabia) - high frequencies of the Middle Eastern haplogroups of the Y-chromosome. In the study of one of the largest Kazakh tribes, argyns, the genetic proximity of argyns to the peoples of the Iranian highlands was shown, indicating the existence of an ancient genetic substrate that was introduced by proto-argyns by ancient migration from the Iranian highlands of Iranian-speaking peoples or their descendants. On the other hand, the similarity of the Argyns with the Kazakhs of the Altai Highlands and the Mongols was revealed, which shows the presence of the so-called “superstrate” introduced by the later migrations of the Türkic and Mongolian-speaking peoples, which led to the fact that by the time of the formation of the tribal Argyn community they were already Türkic-speaking. the clan of Karakhodja.
Origin and History edit
Kazakhstani experts came to the conclusion that, based on ethnogenomic analysis, both by autosomal markers and Y-chromosome polymorphism, the formation of the Kazakh ethnos refers to the period of the XIII-XV centuries (the era of the Golden Horde).
Early history edit
From ancient times, the ethnic picture of the territory of present-day Kazakhstan was diverse, it was inhabited by tribes and peoples of different ethnic origin, who subsequently left their mark on the ethnogenesis of modern Kazakhs. In the northern steppe zone of Central Asia, historically developed one of the earliest forms of world civilization — cattle-breeding nomadic farming. A significant achievement of the Neolithic era in the Central Asian region was the riding of a riding horse. The Bronze Age is represented by monuments of the Andronovo culture, which date back to the XII – XVIII centuries. BC
Written evidence of the tribes inhabiting the present territory of Kazakhstan appeared in the middle. 1st millennium BC er Herodotus, in his History, describes the Sakas (VII — III centuries BC) and mentions their neighborhood with Achaemenid Iran, as well as their struggle with the Persian conquerors, Kings Cyrus II and Darius I. , wandering in the Aral Sea region, Tomiris, executed Cyrus himself in 530 BC. er
In the II. BC er on the territory of Kazakhstan, the main role was played by the tribal unions - Usun and Kanguy. In the II century BC. er about 160 BC. er The Indo-Iranian or Turkic tribe of Usuns moved from the north of the territory of modern Eastern Turkestan to the lands of the Saky-Tigrahaud in Semirechye. At about the same time, in the region of the lower and middle Syrdarya, the state of Kanguy was formed. It is believed that these tribes could have left their mark on the ethnogenesis of the Kazakhs, since in the Elder Zhuz there are genera with similar names - Kanly and Sary-Uysyn.
In II and I centuries BC. er the Huns advanced into the territory of modern Kazakhstan from the steppes north of China (there is no generally accepted opinion about the origin of the Huns in science, Mongolian, Iranian, Turkic and other hypotheses are being advanced). According to the story of the Chinese historian Syma Qian (135–67), a radical change in the overall situation in Central Asia occurred during the “period of warring kingdoms”, that is, 403–221. BC er These changes are associated with the formation of the first nomadic empire in Central Asia, which was created by the Hunnu or Hun tribal alliance. The first mention of the Hun in written sources dates back to 822 BC. Oe., when the Huns made a trip to China. Approximately 51 g BC. er the empire split into two parts: the Eastern Huns recognized the supremacy of the Chinese emperor, and the Western Huns retained their independence, but were ousted to Central Asia.
In 376, the people, referred to in the Western sources as the Huns, were directly at the borders of the Roman Empire. The hypothesis about the origin of the Huns from the Central Asian people of the Huns, mentioned in the previous time in Chinese sources, is accepted by the majority of scientists. The name in the form of the “Huns” was introduced into scientific circulation in 1926 by the historian K. A. Inostrantsev to distinguish the European Huns from the Asian ones.
Middle Ages edit
After the collapse of the Hun empire, the Turks emerged on the historical scene of the Eurasian steppes, who in the middle of the 6th century created one of the largest ancient states in Asia in the history of mankind, stretching from the Black to the Yellow Sea.
Being from Altai, the Turks kept their lineage from the Huns. According to Chinese chroniclers, the Turks were direct descendants of the Western Huns, who settled during the Great Migration of Peoples in the Altai. As evidence, Chinese sources cited common customs and traditions, a social and political structure of the Huns and Turks. The rise of the Turks began with the coming to power in 534 of the ruler Bumyn-kagan. In the spring of 552, the Turks, in alliance with the Chinese, inflicted a crushing defeat on the Jujan kaganate, from which the Turks were previously in vassalage. This is how the Turkic kaganat was born. In 603, the Turkic Kaganate split into the Western Turkic Khaganate and the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. The West Turkic Kaganate included the territory of modern Kazakhstan, as well as Central Asia, the North Caucasus, the Crimea, the Urals and the Volga region. The “ten tribes” (ten-shot Türks) consisting of five tribes of nushibi and five tribes of Dulu became the ethnopolitical core of the Kaganate. The ethnonym Dula in the form of “Dulat” was later known in the tribal structure of the Kazakhs.
The period of existence of the Turgesh Kaganate is characterized by constant wars with the Chinese, as well as the beginning of the Arab expansion into Central Asia. With the penetration of the Arabs here, Islam gradually spread among the sedentary agricultural population in the Central Asian region. There were big changes in the material culture of the Turks. The ancient Turkic script was replaced by Arabic, many Arabic words were used in the vocabulary, the Islamic calendar was adopted, religious holidays appeared in everyday life, the burial was performed according to the Muslim rite.
After the collapse of the Turgesh kaganat, several states were formed: the Oguz state, the Karluk kaganat and the Kimak kaganat. In the middle of the 8th century, a war for the Turgesh inheritance broke out between the Karluk and Oguz. Oguzes in this struggle lost and went to Syrdarya, where they formed the Oguz state, and the Karluks remained in Semirechie and created an early feudal state - the Karluk kaganate. The Oguz tribes of the Syr Darya, Aral and North Caspian valleys left a noticeable trace in the ethnic history of the Kazakhs.
Karluks conducted constant wars with the Arabs and Samanids, who declared a “holy war” against the Turks. In 940, after the last Karluk Kagan was overthrown in Balasagun Satuk Bogra Khan, a new dynasty, the Karakhanids, came to power in Semirechie. In 932, Satuk Bogra Khan adopted Islam and the Muslim name Abd al-Karim. Karakhanid state became the first Turkic state to adopt Islam as the state religion.
На протяжении примерно полутора веков (конец XI — середина XIII вв) между кипчаками и русскими княжествами происходят серии военных конфликтов (Русско-половецкие войны). Кипчаки производят постоянные нападения на южную Русь: опустошают земли, угоняют скот и вывозят имущество, уводят массу пленных. К 1055 году относится их первое появление у русских границ. В 1061 году произошло первое нападение на русские земли[2][3].
After the European campaign of Batu 1236-1242, the Polovtsi ceased to exist as an independent political unit, but made up the bulk of the Turkic population of the Golden Horde, contributing to the formation of the Kazakhs.
During the reign of Khan Uzbek (1313–1341) and his son Janibek (1342–1357), the Golden Horde reached its peak. In the early 1320s, Uzbek Khan proclaimed Islam the state religion. Since the sixties of the XIV century, since the Great Jamming, important political changes have taken place in the life of the Golden Horde. The gradual disintegration of the state began. After the death of Khan Kichi-Mohammed (1459), the Golden Horde ceased to exist as a single state.
Kazakh Khanate edit
After the defeat of the Golden Horde in 1391 by Timur, it finally broke up into its two wings - western Ak-Orda (the White Horde between the Volga and the Don) and eastern Kok-Orda (the Blue Horde). Kok-Orda, in turn, was divided into the Nogai Horde (1440 - on the lands of modern western Kazakhstan) and the short-lived Khanate of Uzbek Khan on Syrdarya (1428). In 1458, dissatisfied with the harsh policy of the Khan of the Uzbek ulus Abulkhair Khan, the Khans Zhanibek and Kerey migrated from the shores of the Syr Darya to the east in Semirechye, to the lands of the Mogulistan ruler Esen Boogie, where they formed the Kazakh Khanate (1465).
The final period of consolidation of the Turkic tribes into a single Kazakh ethnos took place. The Kazakh Khan Kasym (1445-1521) managed to unite under his command the rest of the steppe tribes of Eastern Desht-i-Kipchak and in the fight against the Sheibanids of Maverannakhr in the south and the Nogai Horde in the west to expand their state’s borders from Irtysh to Yaik. He even captured Saraichik, the capital of the Nogai Horde. Under Kasym Khan, the number of Kazakhs reached a million people.
In the early 30s of the XVI century in the Kazakh Khanate a war began between the grandsons of Zhanibek Khan. From this civil strife, also called the “civil war”, the winner was Kasym-Khan’s son Khak-Nazar-Khan.
Khak-Nazar (rules 1538-1580) continued the work of strengthening the Kazakh Khanate, took away the Semirechye from Mogulistan, and beat the steppe of the Arch from the Nogai Horde. In 1580, under Yoshim Khan, Tashkent also became part of the Kazakh Khanate, which later became the capital of the Kazakh Khanate.
Yoshim Khan conducted a fundamental reform of the political system of the Kazakh state. Instead ulusnoy system at the beginning of the XVII century. The zhuz organization was introduced, when all the Kazakh lands were divided between three economic and territorial associations - zhuzes.
In 1635, a new Mongolian state was formed on the Dzhungar plain between the ranges of Tien Shan and Altai - the Dzungarian Khanate. Since then, the Kazakh-Dzungar war, which has lasted a total of more than 100 years, begins.
As a result of the military campaign of 1741-1742. The largest owners of the Middle Zhuz recognized themselves as vassals of the Dzungarian Khan. Sultan Ablai was captured. Sultans Barak, Batyr and others went over to the side of the winners, gave amanat (hostages) and pledged to pay tribute to the Dzungars. Khan of the Middle Zhuz, Abulmambet, also sent his youngest son, Sultan Abulfeyz, to Dzungaria as a hostage and paid tribute. Thus, the Middle Zhuz was put in the same position of dependence on the Dzungarian Khanate, as the Senior Zhuz. Later, Khan Abulhair sent his son to the Huntaidge.
In 1729, there was a bloody battle of the Kazakh sarbaz with the Dzungarian conquerors in the south-east of Lake Balkhash, in the area of Anyrakai, where the combined forces of the three zhuz won. The troops of the conquerors began to retreat along the river. Or east. But at this time, the leaders of the Kazakh militia in connection with the death of Khan Bolat quarreled over power, which facilitated the actions of the Oirats and nullified the numerous victims and efforts of the Kazakh people in the fight against the Dzungars. The complexity of the foreign policy situation of the Kazakhs prompted to look for ways out of this situation. Back in 1726, the Khan of the Younger Zhuz Abulkhair, the foremen of Sutur, Yedikbai, Khadzhibay, Kulymbay and others sent to Russia Ambassador Koibagar to “ask for patronage” for the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. This embassy remained unsuccessful, but Abulkhair did not abandon his intentions and in September 1730 he again sent the embassy through Ufa to St. Petersburg with a letter to the Russian Empress Anna Ioannovna and verbally asking for citizenship and patronage. On February 19, 1731, Empress Anna Ivanovna signed a signed instrument to Khan Abulkhair on acceptance of the Younger Zhuz into Russian citizenship. Ambassadors headed by A. I. Tevkelev, the translator of the Foreign Affairs Commission, were sent to Khan Abulkhair to take the appropriate oath to Kazakhstan with a diploma. Based on the assurances of Abulhair, in St. Petersburg decided that the desire to enter into Russian citizenship is shared by all the sultans and foremen of the Younger Zhuz. However, when Tevkelev arrived on October 5, 1731 at the Abulkhair rate located on the r. Irgiz, it turned out that there were significant disagreements regarding the adoption of Russian citizenship among the feudal elite. Attempts by the “opposing party” headed by Sultan Barak to resist the negotiations and to exclude the registration of the act of joining the Younger Zhuz to Russia failed and on October 10, 1731 a significant part of the meeting of the Kazakh elders favored its adoption. Although the entry of the Middle and Senior Zhuzes took place later, Abulkhair Khan, speaking to the tsarist government, spoke on behalf of the entire Kazakh people, which undoubtedly alerted the Dzungars and made them look with dismay at the further development of Russian-Kazakh relations. In the decree of the Russian empress, there were clauses guaranteeing the inviolability of already officially Kazakh citizens from hostile actions of restless neighbors: “if enemies, the Kaysaks (Kazakhs) attack you, so that you can be protected from our defense”. Without denying the objective basis for the adoption of Russian citizenship by the Younger Zhuz, one should not lose sight of the selfish interests of Abulhair, who, relying on the Russian administration, hoped to weaken the positions of his political opponents, to rise above his potential rivals in the struggle for individual power. In this issue there was no consensus in Russian historiography. M. Maksheev, A. I. Dobrosmyslov, I. Zava-Lishin, V. N. Vitebsky, I. I. Kraft on the whole justified Abulhair’s actions during negotiations and signing a document on citizenship. A. I. Levshin was inclined to consider citizenship as a manifestation of the personal will of Abulhair and other "power-loving chiefs" of the people who cherished the hope of "strengthened by the patronage of a powerful power." However, even after the adoption of Russian citizenship by the Junior Juz of Russia, the situation in Kazakhstan remained difficult. The threat of the Dzungar devastating invasion was not lifted. In this difficult situation, the people themselves took upon themselves the task of saving the country. In the years of the reflection of the Dzungar aggression, the military talent of the Sultan Abylay was revealed. But even in this situation, various classes of Kazakh society set themselves different goals. If the working masses of nomadic pastoralists dreamed of peace and pastures, trade with neighboring countries as conditions for the restoration and development of a ruined economy, the cessation of endless requisitions and plunder, impoverishment, some Kazakh feudal lords sought opportunities to strengthen their personal positions, while the famous biys Kazybek, Tole, Ayteke tirelessly called on the people for unity. On November 24, 1732, Tevkelev, completing his mission, set off on his way back from the Nyzaksacks tract. On January 2, 1733, he arrived in Ufa with the embassy of Abulhair, sent to Petrourg. It consisted of the son of Abulhair Sultan Yeraly, the cousin of Khan Sultan Niyaz, the foremen Chadynbai, Murza Hudai-Nazar, the batyr Mur-zheldy, Murza Tugelbay and others.
Then, in 1733-1734. Some biys and influential sultans of South Kazakhstan expressed a desire to accept Russian citizenship. The decree of Empress Anna Ioannovna of June 10, 1734 testified to the consent of the government to accept the Senior zhuz into Russia. However, its remoteness from Russia, as well as its tense relations with Dzungaria, the killing of Khan Zholbarys in 1740, who held on to a pro-Russian orientation, postponed the implementation of this plan for a long time.
At the end of February 1741, the 30-thousand-strong Oirat army, under the command of Septen and the eldest son Galdan-Tseren Lama-Dorji, again invaded Kazakhstan and in disasters reached Tobol and Ishim. Military operations continued until the summer of 1741. In the course of these battles with the Dzungars, Abylai Sultan, one of the prominent warriors, and his associates were captured. Commanding a reconnaissance detachment of two hundred warriors, Ablay burst straight into the disposition of the enemy’s main forces. Surrounded on all sides by the Oirats ’many thousands army, the Kazakhs were captured. Soon after not long fights, a small detachment of Sultan Barak was defeated. Sultan Durgun, batyr Akymshin, Koptugan were captured and taken to Dzungaria.
In the summer of 1741, a council took place at the rate of Khan of the Middle Zhuz. The question was whether to continue the war or start peace negotiations with the Dzungars. Most voted for peace. The Kazakh embassy was sent to Dzungaria, which conducted negotiations on the terms of a truce and the release of prisoners, including Ablai. Negotiations ended successfully. Ablai was released. This turn of events was obviously contributed by the fact that in 1745-1754. feudal feuds for the throne of the Dzungar Khan took place in the Dzungar Khanate.
To the sharp internal contradictions for power in the Dzungarian Khanate was added a new concern. The Manchu ruling in China, the Qing Dynasty, which closely followed the development of events in Dzungaria, considered the approaching moment as the most suitable for delivering a decisive blow to its weakened opponent.
In the early spring of 1755, a huge Tsin army invaded the territory of the Dzungarian Khanate. The ruler of Dawah is captured and taken to Beijing. Dzungaria turned out to be fragmented into somewhat disobedient to each other with their owners. Thus, the Dzungarian Khanate, as a powerful militarized centralized state, essentially ceased to exist. By 1758 Dzungaria lay in ruins and represented fragments of former power.
So, the first half of the XVIII century was an era of bitter adversity, serious defeats. The weakness of state power, the inability and unwillingness of the feudal elite, occupied by internal strife, to organize the defense of the country.
Kazakhs within the Russian Empire and the USSR edit
The beginning of the expansion of Russia to Kazakhstan was preceded by the construction of Russian fortification lines along the Russian-Kazakh border, the adoption by the government of incentive measures for the resettlement of Russian peasants and merchants to areas bordering Kazakhstan and political and economic pressure on local rulers.
In total, by the beginning of the 19th century, 46 fortresses and 96 redoubts were erected on four lines. In 1731, a protectorate of Russia was established over the Kazakhs of the Younger Zhuz. In 1732, the Khan of the Middle Zhuz Sameke swore an oath to the Russian empress, and in 1740, the Russian protectorate over the Kazakhs of the Middle Zhuz was confirmed by Abylay Khan. The ruler of the Senior Zhuz on the territory of Semirechye, Suyuk Khan, in 1818 recognized Russian suzerainty. By 1847, Russian citizenship was extended to almost all Kazakhs of the Senior Zhuz. As the sovereign power over the Kazakhs of the Younger and Middle Zhuz passed to St. Petersburg, the power of the Khans began to bear a nominal character. In 1818, the title of Khan was abolished in the Middle Zhuz, and in 1824 - in the Younger Zhuz; This was followed by the incorporation of the lands of the Middle Zhuz into Western Siberia under the name “Kyrgyz steppe”. The entire period of rule of the Russian Empire in the Kazakh steppe is accompanied by numerous national liberation movements of the Kazakhs. From the middle of the 18th century until 1916, about 300 national liberation disturbances, wars, uprisings took place in Kazakhstan .. The largest of which were the Isatay Taimanov Uprising in the Bukeyev Horde (1836–1838), the Kazakh Juvenile Uprising led by batyr Srym Datov ( 1783–1797), the Kazakh uprising of the Middle Zhuz under the leadership of Khan Kenesary (1802–1847), and the uprising in the Seven Rivers of 1916.
According to the data of 1890, published in the “Alphabetical List of Nations Living in the Russian Empire”, the Kirghiz-Kaisaks (that is, the Kazakhs) lived in the Orenburg and Astrakhan gubernias, in the Semipalatinsk, Semirechensk, Turgai and Ural regions with a total number of 3 million people. At the beginning of the 19th century, the tsarist government of Russia created and maintained the Inner, or Bukey Horde.
At the beginning of the 20th century, there were over 40 major tribal groups among the Kazakhs. Orientalist and Mongolian A.M. Pozdneev in an article in the Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron noted that individuals from Kirghiz-Kaisaks (the then Russian name of the Kazakhs) sometimes designate their nationality by the common name Cossack, but more often they define it by the name of the kind to which they consider themselves to be owned. At the same time, Russian ethnographic science has never questioned that these clans constitute a single people, noting that they speak the same language.
The formal division of Zhuzas virtually disappeared by the beginning of the 20th century, but until now the representatives of the Elder Zhuz live mainly in the south of Kazakhstan, the Middle-in the north and the east, the Younger-in the west of the country.
After the abdication of Nicholas II and the creation of the Provisional Government, political life was revived on the outskirts of the empire. In December 1917, the Second All-Kazakh Congress convened in Orenburg. The congress declared the Kazakh autonomy “Alash” and created the People’s Council (government) “Alash-Orda”. But Alash-Orda supported the Mensheviks, and in the years of the civil war entered into a military alliance with KOMUCH. In early 1920, the Alash autonomy was abolished by the Bolsheviks, who came to power, and its leaders were later shot.
In the 1920s - 1930s in Kazakhstan due to the policy of "dispossession" and collectivization. there is a massive famine (famine in Kazakhstan (1919–1922), famine in Kazakhstan (1932–1933)). About 2 million Kazakhs died from hunger in the 1930s, causing a 31 percent reduction in the population, hundreds of thousands fled to China. In the period 1937-1938, part of the intelligentsia was repressed and shot, including such leaders of the Kazakh people as Alikhan Bokeykhan, Turar Ryskulov, Ilyas Zhansugurov.
During the Great Patriotic War, about 450 thousand Kazakhs went to the front, more than half of them did not return.
Sources edit
- ^ Kazakh — статья из Британской энциклопедии
- ^ Толочко П. П. Кочевые народы степей и Киевская Русь. — СПб.: Алетейя, 2003. — С. 89—129.
- ^ Каргалов В. Русь и кочевники. — М.: Вече, 2004. — С. 43—46.
[[Category:Ethnic groups in Uzbekistan]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Turkmenistan]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Russia]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Kyrgyzstan]] [[Category:Ethnic groups in Kazakhstan]] [[Category:Kazakh people]] [[Category:Articles lacking reliable references]] [[Category:Articles lacking reliable references from February 2018]]