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In this Burmese name, Shin is an honorific, not a given name.
Shin Zawtayanta
ရှင် ဇောတယန္တ
Personal
Born1373
735 ME
Yesagyo, Ava Kingdom
Died1448/49 (aged 74–75)
810 ME
Pinya?
ReligionBuddhism
NationalityBurmese
SchoolTheravada
OccupationBuddhist monk
Senior posting
Based inPinya

Sagyo Thu-Myat Shin Zawtayanta (Burmese: စကြိုသူမြတ် ရှင်ဇောတယန္တ, lit. 'The Venerable Zawtayanta of the Sagyo [Monastery]"'; 1373–1448/49)

Early life edit

(hy-1-454)

  • Dhamma name: Shin Zawtayanta (Jotayanta).
  • educated in Sale, under Shin Maha Yatha (Maha-yasa) at the Shin Pin-Swe-Gyo (ရှင်ပင်စွယ်ကြို) Monastery
  • Invited to Pinya by Thado of Myohla

(nph-207), (my-1-312), (hy-1-447) and (mat-255)

  • Was residing in Pinya at the time of Razadarit's invasion
  • Known for his knowledge about the Tipiṭaka (Buddhist scriptures) as well as astrology and horoscopes.

(yt-1-214-fn2)

  • referencing (Thathana Linkara page 142): hailed from Sagyo, south of Pagan. Came to Pinya to further his religious education. He later moved to the monastery, located near the Shwezigon Pagoda of Pinya. The monastery was donated by Minkhaung's minister Yaza-nanda-thingyan.
  • He and the abbot of Minkyaung Monastery proposed to recalibrate the Burmese calendar in 1436 to King Mohnyin Thado.

Titles in Mon edit

(nph-307)

  • In Mon in the Pak Lat: Binya Thagyaw (ဗင်ယ သဂြော, "Pinya Sagyaw ")
  • In the Razadarit, Pinya Thugyo (ပင်းယ သူကြို, "Pinya Sugyo")

Age edit

  • (nph-207), (my-1-312) and (hy-448): In his 31st year (11 years a monk) at the time of the meeting with Razadarit
  • (yt-1-214): In his 30th year (11 years as a monk)
  • . (ရဟန်းစာဆိုတော်များ အတ္ထုပ္ပတ္တိ၊ ရေးသားသူ ဘုန်းနွယ်(ရေစကြို)၊ အရှင်ဧသိက(ဘုန်းနွယ်) စာပေရောင်ခြည်ကျောင်း၊ အောင်မြေသာသူဌေးတိုက် ရေစကြိုမြို့။) he was in his 65th year (aged 64) when the Burmese calendar was reset to year 2 in March 1438.

Peace negotiations edit

In mid-February 1402,[note 1] the Ava delegation arrived at the Hanthawaddy camp. The delegation came with a retinue of 300 men, and several presents for Razadarit from Minkhaung. Razadarit invited Shin Zawtayanda to his royal barge Karaweik itself.[1]

The discussion started out slowly. When the monk asked the king why he had come to Ava, Razadarit gave four reasons: (1) to avenge Swa's invasion of Hanthawaddy; (2) to expand his territory; (3) to visit the famous religious sites in the upcountry; (4) to be remembered as a great conqueror in history.[note 2] The monk replied that King Swa had already died; that Razadarit had already visited many religious sites, unimpeded; and that the king was already known for his military prowess. But he added that Minkhaung had the full support of all the vassals by painstakingly enumerating all 53 walled cities under Ava's rule. He also pointed out that the rainy season was fast approaching, and the Hanthawaddy king should perhaps be concerned about his home provinces revolting during this long campaign.[5][6] It did not work. Razadarit is said to have replied with a polite smile that he "the king of kings" and his senior staff did not need to be lectured about military strategy by a monk, and that he was prepared to meet Ava forces militarily.[6]

 
A zayat pavilion at the Kuthodaw Pagoda

The atmosphere improved when the monk began delivering his prepared sermon. The lengthy sermon preached various Buddhist doctrines regarding the "wickedness of war", and "the sin of bloodshed".[7][8] Although the preachings were "more or less common knowledge among Buddhists",[9] they perfectly suited Razadarit, who was looking for a "pretense" to withdraw.[7] After the sermon, Razadarit announced that he had indeed come to conquer the upcountry but now that he had a better understanding of the dhamma, he would return home as soon as his naval patrols from the upriver arrived back to the base.[9][10]

In the meantime, as gestures of goodwill, the king freed 20 to 30 prisoners of war to the monk's custody, and ordered the construction of a zayat (pavilion) on the premises of the Shwe Kyet-Yet Pagoda.[11][12][13] The logs for the zayat came from five of his golden barges. Five days later, the zayat was completed, and the king dedicated the zayat to the pagoda.[14]

Toungoo period edit

The Toungoo period (1510–1752) marked the end of small scale warfare that dominated the landscape since 1287. Early Toungoo kings were able to massively increase both the scale and scope of warfare to unprecedented levels in Southeast Asia. They fielded massive armies (as much as ten times larger than those fielded by small kingdoms), and brought war to much of present-day mainland Southeast Asia, Manipur, and southern Yunnan for nearly a century (1530s–1620s). The military success of Toungoo kings reunified the kingdom, and resulted in the largest empire in the history of Southeast Asia. But decades of constant warfare thoroughly exhausted the resources of the kingdom, and led to the collapse of the empire quicker than it took to establish. The collapse taught later Toungoo kings (1630s onward) to greatly scale back warfare. The period is also notable for the advent of early modern warfare in Burma where Western firearms (mainly, Portuguese matchlocks and cannon), mercenaries (mainly, Portuguese and Muslim), and to a lesser extent, military tactics, began to be incorporated into Burmese military strategy.

Prome and Pagan (1539–1544) edit

The conquest of Martaban now gave the upstart regime of Tabinshwehti complete control of the maritime trade and ports of the Hanthawaddy Kingdom. More importantly, Toungoo now had access to Portuguese firearms, which would prove crucial in its future campaigns.

Next up in Toungoo's target was Prome. Toungoo forces had already laid siege to Prome once in 1539 because Prome took in the refugee king of Pegu, Takayutpi. The siege failed because Prome's overlord, the Confederation of Shan States, and ally Arakan both sent help to break the siege. Toungoo would try again. In December 1541, Toungoo forces laid siege to Prome. As before, both Ava and Arakan again sent help. But Toungoo forces under the command of Gen. Bayinnaung defeated both land armies—first Arakanese army as it came out of the Ann Pass, and Ava forces at north of Prome. The Arakanese flottilla landed in Bassein (Pathein) but turned back upon hearing of the news of their army's defeat. Without outside help, Prome fell after a five months' siege, on 19 May 1542. The town was mercilessly sacked.[15][16]

In retaliation, the Confederation (now consisted of seven Shan states) launched a major land and naval invasion in November 1543.[17] But the invasion force was driven back, and was followed up Toungoo forces which took as far north as the old imperial capital of Pagan. Tabinshwehti was crowned king at Pagan in July 1544.[18][16] Tabinshwehti now ruled a kingdom from Pagan in the north to the Tavoy frontier in the south.

Arakan (1546–1547) edit

Tabinshwehti then turned to Arakan, ally of Prome. In 1546, the governor of Sandoway (Thandwe), uncle of King Min Bin of Mrauk-U, submitted to Tabinshwehti in exchange for the kingship of Arakan. On 28 October 1546, Toungoo invaded by sea and by land.[19] The sea and land forces met up north of Sandoway, and marched north. The combined forces quickly advanced to Mrauk-U but could not make any headway against the heavily fortified capital for the next three months. In the mean time, the news that Siamese forces were raiding the frontier reached the front line. Tabinshwehti and Min Bin agreed to a truce. Tabinshwehti called off the invasion on 2 February 1547 while Min Bin agreed to make peace with his uncle the governor of Sandoway, and permitted Toungoo troops to stay at Sandoway for three months.[20]

Confederation of Shan states (1554–1557) edit

The Confederation-controlled Ava was next. Bayinnaung made extensive preparations in the next two and a half years, assembling a large invasion force (18,000 men, 900 horses, 80 elephants, 140 war boats). Precautions were taken on the frontiers to guard against attack from Siam and Arakan.[21][22] In December 1554, Toungoo forces launched a two-pronged invasion in addition to the flotilla up the Irrawaddy towards Ava. Within a month, the invasion forces held complete command of the river and the country. On 22 January 1555, the southern forces took the city. King Sithu Kyawhtin was taken prisoner and was sent to Pegu. Bayinnaung then appointed his younger brother Thado Minsaw viceroy of Ava.[22]

Bayinnaung then planned to follow up to the Confederation's home states. He needed to bring the Shan states under his control in order to prevent Shan raids into Upper Burma. He collected an even larger army: 24,000 men, 1200 horses and 60 elephants. From 24 December 1556 to 8 January 1557, Toungoo armies left Ava for the invasion. The massive show of force worked. Shan states one after another submitted: Momeik and Hsipaw on 25 January 1557; Mohnyin on 6 March 1557; Mogaung on 11 March 1557.[23] In all, Bayinnaung in one stroke controlled all cis-Salween (Thanlwin) Shan states from the Patkai range at the Assamese border in the northwest to Mohnyin (Mong Yang), Mogaung (Mong Kawng) in present-day Kachin State to Momeik (Mong Mit) Thibaw (Hsipaw), and Mone (Mong Nai) in the east.

To be sure, Bayinnaung's authority was still fragile. Mone, one of the largest Shan states controlling Nyaungshwe (Yawnghwe) and Mobye (Mong Pai), revolted soon after the army left. Its ruler was a brother of the king of Lan Na (Chiang Mai). After the revolt, its armies sacked Thibaw to protect its northern flank. In November 1557, Bayinnaung launched a two-pronged invasion. The northern army of 8000 (300 horses, 30 elephants) led by Thado Minsaw marched to Thibaw while the southern army of 15,000 (600 horses, 50 elephants) led by Bayinnaung and Nanda. The massive armies easily defeated Mone's forces. The sawbwa of Mone, fled to Chiang Mai which was ruled by one of his brothers.[24]

Research notes edit

Shan states (1556–1557) edit

Conquest of cis-Salween Shan states: Momeik (Mong Mit), Thibaw (Hsipaw), Mone (Mong Nai), Mohnyin (Mong Yang), Mogaung (Mong Kawng), Mogok, and Kale (to the Patkai range to the Assamese border)

  • 9 November 1556: Armies leave Pegu for Ava in preparation for the invasion
  • 24 December 1556 to 8 January 1557: Armies go through Ava
  • 25 January 1557: Conquest of Momeik and Thibaw
  • 6 March 1557: Conquest of Mohnyin
  • 11 March 1557: Conquest of Mogaung
  • Prohibition of the burial of male and female slaves at funerals of Shan sawbwas (chiefs)
  • 9 April 1557: Left Mogaung

Mone revolted soon after the army returned. It sacked Thibaw, killing its Sawbwa. Mone and its vassals (Nyaungshwe, Mobye (Mong Pai)) now prepared to face the reprisal. On 27 October 1557 (6th waxing of Tazaungmon 919 ME), Bayinnaung and his armies left Pegu to meet up with the armies at Ava.

The strength

  • Northern army (led by Thado Minsaw): eight infantry regiments (8000 men), 300 horses, 30 elephants. It marched to Thibaw.
  • Southern army (led by Bayinnaung and Nanda): 15 regiments (15,000 men), 600 horses, 50 elephants.
  • Easily defeats Mone's forces. Mone Sawbwa fled to Chiang Mai which was ruled by one of his brothers.

Lan Na (1558) edit

Bayinnaung chased the sawbwa. After 45 days of arduous march, the army arrived at the gates of Chiang Mai. The king of Lan Na surrendered without a fight on 2 April 1558.[25] Left a garrison to watch the frontiers of Lan Xang and Siam. He returned to Ava in August 1558.[26]

Setthathirat, ruler of Lan Xang at Luang Prabang, and of the Lan Na royalty, attacked Chiang Mai in early 1559 but he was repulsed.[25]

Manipur (1559–1560) edit

  • 3 December 1559 (5th waxing of Pyatho 921 ME)[27] leaves Pegu for campaign to Manipur
  • 3-pronged invasion: Minimal resistance, then surrendered
  • 27 May 1560 (4th waxing of Pyatho 922 ME): Arrived back at Pegu

Chinese Shan states (1563) edit

  • August 1562 (Wagaung 924): Informed of attack on Momeik by Chinese Shan states to the east of Bhamo.
  • 16 December 1562 (6th waning of Natdaw 924)[28]: Kengtung sawbwa came to Pegu and submitted.
  • 26 February 1563 4 waxing of Tabaung 924: Two pronged attack led by Nanda and Thado Minsaw, viceroy of Ava (via Momeik) and Minkhaung, viceroy of Toungoo and Thado Dhammayaza, viceroy of Prome (via Thibaw) to the Taping valley.
  • Strength: ~24000 (1000 cavalry, 80 elephants)[29]
  • Minimal resistance

Siam (1563–1564) edit

  • 17 June 1562 (Full moon Waso 924 ME): Enters frontier at the Tenasserim coast and founds Tavoy[30]
  • Begins extensive preparations. Understands that Ayutthaya would be much more difficult than Shan states and Lan Na campaigns (hy-2-347)
  • Invasion route via Chiang Mai
  • Four armies gathered up at Toungoo
  • Thado Minsaw -- ~14000 (500 cavalry, 80 elephants)
  • Minkhaung -- ~14,000 (500 cavalry, 80 elephants)
  • Thado Dhammayaza -- 14000 (500, 80)
  • Nanda -- 14000 (500, 80)
  • To guard the soutern flank, two regiments (2000) were posted at Martaban. Three regiments (3000) guarded Pegu.
  • 12 November 1563 (12th waning of Tazaungmon 925): Bayinnaung and his 4000 strong army (400H, 40E) leaves Pegu.
  • Chiangmai ruler fled to Laos
  • invades along with 300 war boats down the Wang
  • Siamese stand at Kamphaeng Phet
  • After Kamphang Phet, simultaneous attacks on Sukhothai, Phitsanulok
  • Nanda and Minkhaung at Sukhothai -- one-day battle. Lord of Sukhothai fled.
  • Thado Dhammayaza and Thado Minsaw on Phitsanulok (battle lasted 5 days)
  • Viceroy of Phitsanulok (Maha Thammaracha) agrees to become a tributary, and provides reinforcements and supplies
  • Combined armies come down on Ayutthaya
  • Ramesuan led Ayutthaya's defenses.
  • Portuguese gunners from three Portuguese warships and batteries kept Burmese at bay
  • 7 February 1564 (Monday, 11th waning of Tabodwe 925): The Burmese finally capture three Portuguese ships at the harbor (hy-2-353-354)
  • 18 February 1564 (Friday, 8th waxing of Tabaung 925): Siamese king surrenders (hy-2-355)
  • 28 March 1564 (Tuesday, 2nd waning Tagu 926): Bayinnaung and army leave Ayutthaya
  • Siamese king and crown prince were brought back as hostages
  • Left Siamese king's son as vassal king with a garrison of 3000 men. (geh-168)

Lan Na and Lan Xang (1564–1565) edit

Because the ruler of Chiang Mai failed to send a levy to the war effort, an expedition was sent there to capture the ruler. The ruler was brought back.

  • 23 October 1564 (Monday, 4th waning of Tazaungmon 926): Armies left for Chiang Mai (Nanda, Thado Minsaw) (hy-2-361)
  • The city was captured, and Mahadewi installed as vassal queen regnant of Lan Na
  • 10 April 1565 (Tue, 12th waxing of Kason 927): Bayinnaung left Chiang Mai (hy-2-366)
  • Nanda and Thado Minsaw and their armies stayed behind to attack Lan Xang which had encouraged Mekuti
  • Followed the rebels in pursuit, crossed the Mekong, Vientiane was captured. The king Setthathirath fled to the countryside. But queen and court officials were captured.
  • 1 August 1565 (5th waxing of Wagaung 927): Main Burmese armies left Vientiane. (hy-2-378)
  • But Burmese rule did not extend more than around Vientiane. By 1567, Setthathirath had retaken the capital.
  • Ramesuan participated in the lan Xang campaign. Died in the campaign (hy-2-393)

Siam (1568–1569) edit

  • April 1568: Maha Chakkraphat, who had become a monk, successfully convinced Bayinnaung to allow him to go back to Ayutthaya. When he got back, he disrobed and revolted. (hy-2-393-394)
  • 12 May 1568 (2nd waning of Nayon 930): Maha Thammaracha, lord of Phitsanulok, came to Pegu to affirm his allegiance to Bayinnaung.
  • While Maha Thammaracha was at Pegu, Maha Chakkraphat attacked Phitsanulok, and carried back with men and loot.
  • 30 May 1568 (5th waxing of 1st Waso 930): Sent a 6000 strong army led by Maha Thammaracha to Phitsanulok. Rebuilt Phitsanulok's defenses; collected and stored supplies (hy-2-395)
  • Late July to October (Wagaung to Tazaungmon): Siege of Phitsanulok by Ayutthaya (from their base at Kamphaeng Phet) and Lan Xang (from Lampang). Phitsanulok's defenses held out.
  • 10 October 1568 (6th waning of Thadingyut 930): Bayinnaung and his armies leave Pegu for the campaign (hy-2-402)
  • Invasion force was led by: Nanda, Thado Minsaw, Thado Dhammayaza, Minkhaung
  • Late October (Tazaungmon): siege of Phitsanulok lifted as Siamese and Lan Xang forces withdrew
  • After 47 days, 27 November 1568: main armies reach Phitsanulok (hy-2-403)
  • Armies marched down to Ayutthaya, faced no resistance
  • Late December: siege of Ayutthaya begins
  • Could not take the city. Many killed by musket and cannon fire (hy-2-407)
  • 4 months into the siege, 17 April 1569 (2nd waxing of Kason 931): Maha Chakkraphat dies (Accoring to Wyatt, he died in late January.)
  • February: (dkw-82) Setthathirath assembled an army to break the siege.
April: Approached Ayutthaya from northeast. Burmese were ready for it. Bayinnaung himself led the army to meet Setthathirath's army, leaving Binnya Dala in charge of the siege. (app-114)
Battle took place on 23 April 1569: (8th waxing of Kason 931). Lan Xang army fled in disarray. (hy-2-412)
  • Mahin offered surrender, but was not accepted though the Burmese army had suffered immense loss. (app-114)
  • 31 July 1569 (4th waning of Wagaung 931) (hy-2-418) or 8 August 1569 (Wyatt, p. 82): The city fell.
  • 30 September 1569 (5th waning of Thadingyut 931) (hy-2-419): Bayinnaung presided over the coronation ceremony to make Maha Thammaracha vassal king
  • Siamese king Mahin was carried back. He was reasonably treated well. Like captive kings of Ava and Lan Na, he was accorded a double-roofed house painted white. (geh-170)

Lan Xang (1569–1574) edit

  • 15 October 1569 (6th waxing of Tazaungmon 931) (hy-2-423): Bayinnaung at Ayutthaya led several regiments of his wounded army to invade Vientiane via Phitsanulok. Lan Xang king fled. Bayinnaung pursued but could not find him.
  • invaders were tired by long marches in a mountainous country.
  • mid May 1570: Burmese army left Vientiane back to Phitsanulok (app-115)
  • 13 June 1570 (10th waxing of Waso 932) (hy-2-433): Arrives back at Pegu
  • early 1572: Lan Xang king dies during a raid of a Cambodian town, throne taken over by a court official
  • 1572 Binnya Dala leads another invasion. It fails. (hy-3-3-6)
    • Planned strength: 1000, 100H, 10E x 3 (two regiments from Lower Burma, one from Lan Na) + 3000, 150H, 30E (three regiments from Siam, Phitsanulok, Sukhothai,) = 6000 (450H, 60E)
    • But regiments from Siam were late. Binnya Dala went ahead to Vientiane with his troops anyway. He waited for two months before the Lan Xang capital for reinforcements to arrive. By the time, Siamese regiments arrived, the supplies were running low, and Binnya Dala decided to withdraw.
  • 7 October 1574 (Wed, 7th waning of Thadingyut 936) (hy-3-14): Army leaves Pegu for Vientiane via Chiang Mai; 7 Oct 1574 = Thu
  • It could be Wed, 7th waxing of Thadingyut 936 ME = Wed, 22 Sep 1574
  • Strength (hy-3-13): 37,000, 2200H, 220E
  • 11,000, 600H, 60E -- led by Minkhaung
  • 11,000, 600H, 60E -- led by Thado Dhammayaza
  • 11,000, 600H, 60E -- led by Nanda
  • 4000, 400H, 40E -- Bayinnaung (includes 400 Portuguese mercenaries)
  • (hy-3-14-15): King of Lan Xang flees upon hearing the news
  • 15 Oct 1574 (End of Thadingyut; 1st waxing of Tazaungmon 936): Appoints Ubarit (Maha Ouparat) as king of Lan Xang
  • 16 April 1575 (7 waxing of Kason 937) (hy-3-21): leaves Vientiane for Chiang Mai

Mohnyin and Mogaung (1575–1576) edit

Mohnyin and Mogaung had refused to send levy for the Lan Xang campaign, and had been in open revolt since 1574.

  • 26 September 1575 (7th waning of Thadingyut 937) (hy-3-22): Bayinnaung and his armies leave Pegu for the north
  • Mohyin was taken, the sawbwa of Mohnyin was killed but the sawbwa of Mogaung fled. Though royal troops pursued the renegade sawbwa to the snowy mountains, they could not catch him.
  • 16 April 1576 (3rd waning of Kason 938) (hy-3-30): Armies left Mogaung
  • 8 June 1576 (12th waxing of Waso 938) (hy-3-30): Arrived back at Pegu
  • But the sawbwa was captured by his own officers and sent to Pegu where he was chained to one of gates of the walls.

Lan Xang (1579–1580) edit

Rebellion in Lan Xang against Burmese installed vassal king.

  • 16 October 1579 (12th waning of Thadingyut 941) (hy-3-53-54): Nanda led 22,000-strong (1200 cavalry, 120 elephants) army to Vientiane
  • Rebellion suppressed.
  • 23 March 1580 (8th waxing of Tagu 942): Nanda and army arrive back at Pegu

Arakan (1580–1581) edit

  • 9 September 1580 (1st waxing of Thadingyut 942) (hy-3-60-61): Thiri Thudhammayaza (son of Bayinnaung and viceroy of Martaban) leads invasion of Arakan (24000 men; 120 elephants; 1200 horses)
  • 1300 vessels (estimated by Portuguese ships that saw the invasion flotilla near Cape Negrais) (app-119)
  • Takes Thandwe/Sandoway. Army then stays there for 12 months. Did not proceed to Mrauk-U. Perhaps Bayinnaung wanted to lead the invasion himself.
  • November 1581: Army left Sandoway after Bayinnaung died

Collapse of Toungoo Empire edit

Ava (1584) edit

  • Mingyi Swa's chief queen (Natshin Medaw) was daughter of Thado Minsaw, viceroy of Ava. She was jealous that Mingyi Swa paid more attention to Yaza Datu Kalayani (hy-3-74-75); she was the only child of Thado Minsaw (hy-3-78)
  • 20 June to 18 July 1583 Waso 945 (hy-3-75): Thado Minsaw wrote to viceroys of Prome and Toungoo (his brothers) and viceroy of Chiang Mai (his nephew) for a rebellion against Nanda. The letters were passed on to Nanda. (mha-129)
  • 27 October 1583 (12th waxing of Tazaungmon 945) (hy-3-76): Nanda learns about Thado Minsaw's conspiracy.
  • 25 March 1584 (full moon day of Tagu 946) (hy-3-76-77): Nanda and army leave for Ava, joined by the viceroys of Prome and Toungoo (app-120)
  • 25 April 1584 (1st waning of Kason 946): Elephant duel between Nanda and Thado Minsaw. Nanda wins. Thado Minsaw flees with remnants of his troops towards the Chinese border

Siam (1584–1593) edit

First campaign (1584)

  • Nanda had summoned his vassal kings to send an army to put down the Ava rebellion (app-121)
  • The Siamese king sent a 6000-strong army led by his son Naresuan to assist.
  • When Naresuan appeared with his army at the Sittaung frontier, crown prince Mingyi Swa directed Naresuan to march to Ava where the rest of the troops were headed to.
  • But Naresuan never marched to Ava. Instead obeying the order, he approached the capital Pegu, and hovering about, menaced an attack.
  • He retreated to Martaban only after he heard that Nanda had defeated Thado Minsaw. He took away thousands of conscripts from the Sittaung region. (geh-181)
  • 3 May 1584, at Martaban, Naresuan formally declared independence from Pegu.
  • An army (12,000 men including 900 horses, 90 elephants; hy-3-80-81) under the command of Mingyi Swa was sent to go after Naresuan. The expedition was hastily planned and badly conducted. The rainy season had just begun. Instead of waiting until the end of rainy season, the Burmese army chased the Siamese army. In marching down the Chao Phaya in the midst of the rainy season, the invasion army was attacked by the Siamese, and was driven back with heavy losses. (app-121)

Second campaign (1586)

  • Late March 1586, Tagu 948 (hy-3-81): another invasion was launched from Lan Na. Led by Mingyi Swa. Army strength was 12,000 men, 1200 horses, 100 elephants. Naresuan met the invasion force at Lampang.
  • Could not make any head way against a heavily fortified Lampang, which was equipped with Portuguese cannon and muskets. Burmese forces attacked for a month but were driven back repeatedly.
  • In June, at the start of the rainy season, Burmese forces retreated and Naresuan came out of Lampang and followed the retreating army. But the Burmese forces made a stand, and drove back the Siamese army.

Third campaign (1586–1587)

  • 21 October 1586 (9th waxing of Tazaungmon 948) (hy-3-84): leaves Pegu for the Ayutthaya campaign; Mingyi Swa remained at Pegu
  • Army strength: 25000 (1200 horses, 220 elephants) (hy-3-84); (geh-181-182)
  • Nanda could never raised more than a third the number his father Bayinnaung had led. According to Harvey, Nanda could not even raise 25,000 men. And a third was too few to surround Ayutthaya. Instead of the besieged, it was the besiegers that starved. Of the men set forth, usually only half returned. In one campaign, only a tenth returned. the Chao Phaya river flooded the country for sixty miles around. The Siamese streamed out of Ayutthaya in war canoes, spearing the Burmese as they swam. (geh-181-182)
  • November 1587: The Burmese army invaded. Siamese put up minimal resistance and retreated behind the walls of Ayutthaya.
  • Burmese fruitlessly attacked the city.
  • By February 1587, casualties began to mount and provisions were running low. Siamese forces came out once every 4 to 5 days to attack the besiegers.
  • 17 March 1587 (10th waxing of Kason 949) (hy-3-86): Main army retreats from Ayutthaya, leaving behind rear guard. (The rear guard included a 12-year-old Natshinnaung.)
  • 21 March 1587: Rear guard began retreat
  • April 1587: Siamese chased the rear guard but were driven back

Pegu faced other rebellions in Shan states (at Inya, 1587–1588 and at Mogaung 1590–1591).

Fourth campaign (1590–1591)

  • Came during a rebellion in the north by Mogaung
  • 22 November 1590 (12th waning of Tazaungmon 952): Another invasion army led by Mingyi Swa leaves Pegu for Chiang Mai. Army strength: (20,000; 1200 horses, 100 elephants)
  • Like in 1586, Siamese met the Burmese at their fort at Lampang
  • Again, could not break through. By March 1591, the army was driven back with heavy losses. Key commanders were captured by the Siamese.

Fifth campaign (1592–1593)

  • 5 December 1592 (2nd waxing of Natdaw 954) (hy-3-93): Another invasion army leaves Pegu. Led again by Mingyi Swa, and viceroy of Prome (Thado Dhammayaza II) and viceroy of Chiang Mai (Nawrahta Minsaw), Natshinnaung of Toungoo
  • 24,000 men; 2000 horses, 150 elephants
  • The Burmese army reached near Suphan Buri
  • 18 January 1593: Elephant dual between Mingyi Swa and Naresuan. Mingyi Swa was slain. Burmese retreated.
  • End of Burmese invasions of Siam. Siam would now be on the offensive.

Internal revolts (1587–1592) edit

  • November 1587: Sent a 4000-strong army (200 cavalry, 20 elephants) to put down a rebellion at Inya (near present-day Taunggyi). Took nearly seven months to put down the rebellion.

Mogaung (1590–1592)

  • 2 November 1590 (5th waxing of Tazaungmon 952) (hy-3-90-91): An army (10,000; 600 horses, 50 elephants) was sent to Mogaung to put down a rebellion by the sawbwa there. February 1591: Put down rebellion
  • November 1591: Another Mogaung rebellion led by son of the deceased Mogaung sawbwa
  • Army (8000, 600 horses, 60 elephants) led by Minyekyawswa (Mingyi Swa's brother).
  • Siege took nearly 7 months. The rebel chief was executed.

Siamese invasions (1594–1605) edit

Main article: Burmese–Siamese War (1594–1605)

First invasion (1594–1595)

  • October 1594 (Tazaungmon 956) (hy-3-96): Governor of Mawlamyaing revolted with Siamese encouragement
  • Army (8000, 400 horses, 40 elephants) marched to Mawlamyaing.
  • In December 1594 (Pyatho 956): Naresuan's army relieved the siege.
  • Siamese army strength: 12,000 men, 600 horses, 60 elephants
  • January 1595: Siamese army reinforced by conscripts from southern Burma then laid siege to Pegu
  • early April 1595: Burmese reinforcements from Toungoo and Chiang Mai relieved the siege
  • Siamese retreated but the entire Tenasserim coast now belonged to the Siamese

Second invasion (1600)

  • February 1600: After Pegu fell to the Toungoo and Arakanese forces in December 1599, the Siamese army led by King Naresuan marched to Pegu to get its share of the loot (geh-183)
  • Late February: When the Siamese got to Pegu, they found a city already burned down by the Arakanese, who had sailed down river with their loot just a few days earlier.
  • Naresuan followed up to Toungoo where the majority of the loot had been taken to.
  • 4 March 1600 (5th waning of Tabaung 961) (hy-3-104): Toungoo forces arrived back, and prepared their defenses at Toungoo.
  • Late March 1600: Siamese forces laid siege to Toungoo. To drain the moat, they cut a channel into the Paunglaung river. (geh-183)
  • Meanwhile, the Arakanese at Syriam attacked Siamese supply lines on the Sittaung.
  • 6 May 1600 (Saturday, 10th waning of Kason 962) (hy-3-105): With supplies running out, and the rainy season around the corner, the Siamese abandoned the siege, and began their retreat.
  • The retreating Siamese forces were caught between the Toungoo and Arakanese forces. The starving Siamese forces suffered heavy losses before they finally reached the frontier at Martaban. (mha-134)
  • It was the last time the Siamese ever invaded mainland Burma but they continued to control up to Martaban.

Lan Na (1601–1602)

  • After the failed invasion of 1600, Naresuan turned north to Lan Na which was ruled by Nanda's son Nawrahta Minsaw.
  • In early 1602, Nawrahta Minsaw who was facing attacks from Lan Xang, became a Siamese tributary (Fernquest, Lao captives, pp. 51–52)

Northern Lan Na (1604–1605)

  • By 1604, new Burmese king Nyaungyan had restored Burmese authority in Shan states and came down on northern Lan Na.
  • Naresuan led an army to prevent the Burmese
  • 25 April 1605: Naresuan fell ill and died during the campaign.

Internal revolts (1594–1599) edit

  • Internal dissensions escalated.
  • Vassal king of Prome (Thado Dhammayaza II) revolted against his father
  • instead of relieving Pegu, marched to Toungoo to take over the city from his rival lord of Toungoo (Minye Thihathu). Natshinnaung defended Toungoo. Lord of Prome retreated after the lord of Toungoo returned from Pegu with his army
  • Nanda was powerless to take any action against Prome
  • In 1596, other vassal major kings (Toungoo, Chiang Mai) had also revolted. Another major vassal king, Lord of Ava, Nyaungyan Min nominally stayed loyal but offered no support. (app-122)
  • King of Toungoo (first cousin of Nanda) asked king of Arakan for a joint-attack on Pegu
  • He chose Arakan because it was furthest and would not be rival for the throne (geh-182)
  • March 1599 (Tabaung 960) (hy-3-100): Arakanese naval flotilla (500 war boats) led by the heir-apparent of Arakan seized Syriam (Thanlyin)
  • April 1560: Combined forces of Toungoo (5000, 500 horses, 30 elephants) and Arakan laid siege to Pegu; Toungoo forces from the north; Arakanese forces from the south
  • Siege starved Pegu. Many people fled including the high royalty.
  • December 1599: Crown prince of Pegu, Minyekyawswa II, accepted king of Toungoo's offer of amnesty, and defected. (hy-3-101). Minyekyawswa was sent to Toungoo. But upon arrival, he was executed by Natshinnaung.
  • Nanda's circle grew smaller. Finally in on Sunday, 19 December 1599, Nanda surrendered. Nanda was taken prisoner to Toungoo.
  • Toungoo and Arakanese forces looted the entire city. All the gold, silver and valuables that had been collected in the last 60 years by Tabinshwehti and Bayinnaung were all looted.
  • The Arakanese forces were left in charge of Pegu.
  • 15 February 1600 (2nd waxing of Tabaung 961) (hy-3-103): Toungoo forces left with their share of the loot.
  • Arakanese deported 3000 households along with their share of the loot: including cannon, 30 bronze images of Ayutthaya (geh-183)
  • Arakanese then burned down the entire city. including the Grand Palace of Bayinnaung.

Nyaungyan restoration edit

Central Burma (1597) edit

Nyaungyan stays nominally loyal to his father Nanda but provides no help to him. Instead he works to consolidate his hold on central Burma and beyond.

  • 14 July 1597 (15th waning of Waso 959) (hy-3-116): Nyaungyan captures Yamethin
  • 16 July 1597 (2nd waxing of Wagaung 959): Announces plans to march to Ava
  • 2 August 1597 (5th waning of Wagaung 959) (hy-3-117): Captures Pagan
  • Receives tribute from various regions of central Burma including Ava and Sagaing as far north as Myedu
  • 17 September 1597 (6th waxing of Thadingyut 959) (hy-3-119): Thado Dhammayaza II leaves Prome for a joint naval-land attack on Ava.
  • But Thado Dhammayaza Mingyi Hnaung was assassinated by one of his advisers on the flagship war boat. The adviser seized the throne, and killed off any potential rivals. Many people fled.
  • Toungoo tried to pick off Prome. Its army laid siege to Prome but could not take it and retreated.

Mohnyin, Mogaung and Bhamo (1599) edit

  • 19 October 1599 (1st waxing of Tazaungmon 961) (hy-3-121): As Toungoo and Arakanese forces were closing in on Pegu in Lower Burma, Nyaungyan at Ava tried to extend his control of the upcountry. He sent an army led by Anaukpetlun to Mohnyin and Mogaung.
  • 2000, 50H, 10E
  • The expedition force faced no opposition. Mohnyin, Mogaung and Bhamo submitted without a fight.

Yamethin and Nyaungshwe (1601) edit

  • 25 February 1600 (12th waxing of Tabaung 961) (hy-3-122): Coronation as king
  • 6 November 1600 (1st waxing of Tazaungmon 962) (hy-3-124): Nyaungyan leads army to repell Toungoo forces from Yamethin. (2000, 300 horses, 20 elephants)
  • Retook the town after a fierce battle
  • 6 February 1601 (4th waxing of Tabodwe 962) (hy-3-125): Army led by Nyaungyan and Anaukpetlun leaves for Nyaungshwe (a nearer Shan state)
  • Faced tough resistance. Vanguard forces were driven back. But eventually overcame Nyaungshwe's defenses. Nyaungshwe sawbwa submitted.

Bhamo II (1602) edit

  • 24 February 1602 (4th waxing of Tabaung 963) (hy-3-126): Army (led by Nyaungyan and Anaukpetlun) leaves for Bhamo whose sawbwa had just revolted.
  • When the Burmese army came, the sawbwa fled to China. But the sawbwa was caught and killed by one of the minor sawbwas at the Chinese border.

Mone (Mong Nai) (1603) edit

  • 24 June 1603 (1st waning of Waso 965) (hy-3-129): Army leaves Ava for Mone (6000, 500 horses, 20 elephants)
  • Stops at Nyaungshwe for three days. reinforces army with conscripts from Nyaungshwe
  • Anaukpetlun leads the attack on the town. Captures Mone and its 33 vassal states, including Mobye (Mong Pai) to the south

Mogaung 2 (1604) edit

  • Planned to attack Prome (ruled by Yan Naing, the usurper.) But Mogaung revolted so plans for Prome had to be postponed.
  • 18 November 1604 (12th waning of Tazaungmon 966) (hy-3-134): The army intended for Prome was redirected to Mogaung. (5000, 300 horses, 30 elephants).
  • Mogaung sawbwa put up a fight. But the town was taken and the sawbwa fled. He was caught and executed.

Thibaw, Momeik, Theinni (1605–1606) edit

  • Nyaungyan now controlled some of the nearer Shan states from Mogaung in the north and Mone, Nyaungshwe and Mobye in the southeast. But did not yet control Momeik, Thibaw, Onbaung, Theinni. Lower Burma was divided between Toungoo, Prome and Portuguese Syriam (hy-3-136)
  • Nyaungyan's control of Mone brought to the border of Lan Na (which was vassal to Siam)
  • In April 1605, Siamese king Naresuan led an army to attack Mone but fell ill at the border and died.
  • 22 July 1605 (7th waxing of Wagaung 967) (hy-3-136): Nyaungyan and his ministers discussed where to attack next. They chose to attack the remaining nearer Shan states first.
  • November 1605: Two armies marched to Momeik and Thibaw
  • (3000, 200H, 20E) to Momeik (led by Anaukpetlun)
  • (4000, 300H, 20E) to Thibaw (led by Nyaungyan)
  • Momeik was acquired without a fight.
  • In the mean time, Nyaungyan's army had taken Thibaw but the king had fallen ill.
  • Anaukpetlun proceeded to Theinni. Overcame considerable resistance and captured the town.
  • 3 March 1606: Nyaungyan dies

Prome (1607–1608) edit

  • 24 October 1607 (4 waxing of Tazaungmon 969) (hy-3-147): Land (7000, 600H, 40E) and naval forces (7000, 400 troops transport boats, 300 war boats, 200 cargo boats) marched to Prome
  • Ava flotilla defeats Prome flotilla at Myede
  • Prome asks assistance from Arakan but Anaukpetlun sends a diplomatic mission to Arakan not to interfere.
  • siege of 8 months
  • 13 July 1608 (1st waxing of Wagaung 970) (hy-3-148): Prome finally fell
  • Ruler of Prome (Yan Naing the usurper) was taken to Ava, and gave good treatment per Nyaungyan's death wish (Nyaungyan was grateful that Yan Naing's assassination of Mingyi Hnaung in 1597 which allowed Nyaungyan to consolidate his power in Upper Burma).
  • Anaukpetlun appointed his brother Minye Theinkhathu as governor of Prome (hy-3-149)
  • Received friendly messages from rulers of Toungoo, Chiang Mai and Arakan who all saw that Anaukpetlun was likely to become the master of all (app-128)

Toungoo (1610) edit

  • Toungoo kingdom was the only holdout left in Upper Burma; But it was difficult to march to Toungoo, east of the Pegu Yoma range
  • Toungoo entered into an alliance with de Brito, who had revolted against his Arakanese masters and ruled Syriam on behalf of Goa and with Martaban, which was a Siamese vassal
  • In August 1609, King of Toungoo, Minye Thihathu died, succeeded by his son Natshinnaung
  • Extensive preparations began; an army of 12,000 (1000H, 50E) was collected from all over Upper Burma and Shan states (hy-3-152)
  • Led by Anaukpetlun and Thalun; nine Shan sawbwas led their own troops
  • August 1610: Laid siege to the city; siege lasted 23 days (hy-3-159)
  • 4 September 1610 (2nd waning of Tawthalin 972): Natshinnaung of Toungoo agreed to become tributary to Anaukpetlun, his cousin. Anaukpetlun allowed Natshinnaung to remain as ruler of Toungoo.

Syriam (1612–1613) edit

  • July 1612 (Waso 974): Syriam and Martaban forces attacked Toungoo. Now weak defenses of Toungoo proved no match for Portuguese firearms. Invaders plundered the city for ten days and burned down the palace. Left right before Anaukpetlun's forces arrived. de Britio brought Natshinnaung to Syriam as prisoner of war. (hy-3-164) (app-128)
  • 26 December 1612 (4th waxing of Pyatho 974) (hy-3-167): Anaukpetlun and army leave Ava for Syriam;
  • Land: 13,000 (700H, 60E)
  • Navy: 3,000 (80 war boats, 30 cargo boats)
  • One of the Navy's tasks was to blockade the port (hy-3-168)
  • Late February 1613: Drove out Portuguese forces from their outer defenses; siege began
  • Could not take the city for a month
  • 29 March 1613 (8th waxing of Tagu 975) (hy-3-168): Burmese dug tunnels beneath the city walls, and brought down a section of the walls. War elephants rushed to the broken section of the wall and enlarged it. The city was breached and taken.
  • 7 April 1613: de Brito, his son and Natshinnaung all executed by impalement
  • A few days later five Portuguese ships laden with provisions arrived from Goa. Another ship from Achin also with provisions arrived a few days later. All were taken by the victors. (app-129)

Martaban (1613) edit

  • 14 May 1613 (10th waning of Kason 975) (hy-3-173): Binnya Dala, ruler of Martaban submitted. He was nominally tributary to Siam but had ruled the region like a sovereign since the death of Naresuan in 1605.
  • Siam sent an army to the Tenasserim coast. But it stopped at Ye, and never came up the coast. (app-130) Mission seemed to be not to retake Martaban but to prevent the Burmese from going down the coast.

Siam (1613–1614) edit

Main article: Burmese–Siamese War (1613–1614)

Tenasserim peninsula

  • 30 November 1613 (4th waning of Natdaw 975) (hy-3-175): Army leaves Martaban for Ye where Siamese defense line began.
Strength: 4000, 100H, 10E; led by Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo and Sawbwa of Thibaw
  • December 1613: Siamese army drive out of Ye; Siamese fell back to Tavoy.
  • 26 December 1613 (full moon Pyatho 975): Battle of Tavoy. Sawbwa of Thibaw led the charge to take the city. He defeated the Tavoy governor in single combat on elephants. When the governor fled, he was brought down by a musket shot. City taken.
  • 16 January 1614 (6th waxing of Tabodwe 975) (hy-3-176): A reinforced army led by Minye Thihathu II of Toungoo invades the Tenasserim penisula.
  • February–March 1614: Army overcame Mergui and reached port of Tenasserim. Wealthy trading port's defenses included 40 Portuguese gunners inside the fort, and 4 Portuguese galliots which defeated 500 Burmese war boats. Two thousand Burmese killed in a single naval battle. Army withdrew back to Tavoy. Siamese forces (8 regiments) followed up but were driven back at Tavoy. Burma had now regained Tavoy. (hy-3-178) (geh-189)
  • 13 March 1614 (2nd waxing of Tagu 976): Army command left the southern front for Martaban to prepare for their next target: Chiang Mai.

Lan Na

  • 30 April 1614 (6th waning of Kason 976) (hy-3-178-179): Main army left Martaban for Chiang Mai. Northern army led by Sawbwa of Mone also invaded.
  • Total invasion force of Lan Na was 17 out of 24 total regiments. The rest guarded the Tenasserim coast.
  • March was slowed greatly by the obstacles placed along the route by Lan Na defenses; start of rainy season (late May) didn't help.
  • 31 July 1614 (9th waning of 2nd Waso 976) (hy-3-179): Reached the gates of Lanphun, which was fortified.
  • Thado Kyaw (King of Lan Na and son of Nawrahta Minsaw) sought help from nearer Lan Xang, not from his nominal overlord Siam. Lan Xang sent an army to reinforce the defenses of Chiang Mai.
  • Running low on provisions; supplies were sent from Martaban but not enough reached the front
  • Sawbwa of Mone and his troops mutinied and abandoned their line; switched sides and took up position in Kengtung at the Lan Xang border. (hy-3-179)
  • Nevertheless, army persevered, and eventually isolated Lan Na/Lan Xang forces inside the Chiang Mai and Lanphun pocket
  • 22 December 1614 (6th waning of Natdaw 976) (hy-3-181): A day after Thado Kyaw died, the city surrendered. Lan Xang soldiers were also captured.

Arakan 1615 edit

  • October 1615 (Thadingyut 976) (hy-3-182): Arakan demanded two islands on the border.
  • November: Anaukpetlun sent an army to raid Sandoway.

Farther Shan States (1622–1624, 1625–1626) edit

  • 31 January 1622 (6th waning of Tabodwe 983) (hy-3-184): Sent four regiments (4000; 150H; 15E) to Kengtung where fugitive Sawbwa of Mone had set up fiefdom with help from Lan Xang; Mone Sawbwa participated in the siege of Chiang Mai in 1614 but he and his followers fled during the siege.
  • Four regiments (4000, 150H, 15E) led by Minyekyawswa II (Viceroy of Ava), Sawbwa of Thibaw
  • Defeated the combined defenses. Gained Kengtung but army had lost many men and could not follow up on Lan Xang.
  • Decided to attack (Kenghung/Sisongpanna) instead
  • 26 April 1622 (2nd waning of Kason 984) (hy-3-185): A reinforcement army was sent to Kengtung where the main army was stationed, where they marched to Kengyun next to Kenghung; occupied Kengyun and Maingsi
  • Army could not break the defenses at Kenghung; spent over a year and a half chasing other Kenghung troops
  • 12 December 1623 (6th waning of Natdaw 985) (hy-3-186): A reinforcement regiment (1000, 50H, 5E) led by Thalun, then viceroy of Prome was sent to the front.
  • January 1624: Kengyun and Kenghung surrendered.
  • Next year, 1625, Kengyun and Maingsi promptly revolted. Army led by Thalun and Minyekyawswa II left to put down the rebellions.
  • Natdaw 988 (19 November-17 December 1626) (hy-3-187): Rebellions put down.

Thalun's accession (1628–1629) edit

  • Thalun and Minyekyawswa II and their armies remained in the Shan states for the next year and a half until July 1628
  • 11 July 1628 (10th waxing of 1st Waso 990) (hy-3-190): Received news by messenger that their elder brother the king had been assassinated by one of his sons two days earlier.
  • Thalun and Minye Kyawswa were stationed at different towns and were suspicious of each other's intentions. But decided to collaborate against their nephew, Minyedeippa, the usurper. (app-134)
  • Received submissions from most of Shan chiefs that they would be loyal to the brother not to the usurper. Gathered troops from Shan states; not all Shan chiefs were loyal; Sawbwa of Mogaung was loyal to Minyedeippa (hy-3-192)
  • 5 September 1628 (7th waxing of Tawthalin 990) (hy-3-192): Minyedeippa appointed one of his uncles, Minye Uzana, as viceroy of Ava (Minyekyawswa II's position)
  • Thalun and Minyekyawswa II came down from the Shan states
  • 15-16 December 1628 (5th and 6th waning of Natdaw 990) (hy-3-192): Battle of Pinya (just north of Ava); Thalun's vanguard forces defeated Minye Uzana's forces. Defeated Uzana was arrested and sent to Pegu where he was executed.
  • 6 February 1629 (13th waxing of Tabodwe 990) (hy-3-193): Two brothers and their main armies reached Pinya, and gathered more troops from Upper Burma
  • refrained from attacking Ava
  • 9 June 1629 (4th waning of Nayon 991) (hy-3-195): Thalun sent an army led by Minyekyawswa to Pegu
  • Arakan sent an army to help Minyedeippa. It reached the environs of Prome but ultimately decided not to get involved.
  • 19 August 1629: Minyedeippa arrested by ministers who invited Thalun as the rightful king
  • 10 February 1630 (14th waning of Tabodwe 991) (hy-3-199): Embassy from Arakan arrived to make amends. Thalun accepted to establish good relations with Arakan. Exchanged regular embassies with Arakan in the following years.
  • 22 January 1634 (8th waning of Pyatho 995) (hy-3-215): Sent an embassy to Ayutthaya.

Ming intrusions (1651, 1659–1662) edit

  • In 1644, Qing Manchu forces overthrew the last Ming Emperor. One of his sons, Last Ming Emperor fled to Yunnan with his followers
  • 1651: Fleeing Ming forces entered Kengyun.
  • 30 September 1651 (2nd waning of Thadingyut 1013) (hy-3-258): Three regiments left Ava for the front (led by Ne Myo Ye Kyaw, king's brother)
  • 30 October 1651 (2nd waning of Tazaungmon 1013): Another two regiments followed.
  • December 1651 (Pyatho 1013): Burmese armies driven back by the Ming forces; Ne Myo Ye Kyaw died.
  • 24 December 1651 (Wednesday, 13th waxing of Pyatho 1013): Minye Thihathu, heir-apparent and king's brother, died. (unrelated to the Chinese invasion).
  • 23 January 1652 (13th waxing of Tabodwe 1013): King's eldest son Narazeya made the heir-apparent
  • 1658: Zhu Youlang's forces were defeated at their last stand. He sought refuge at Bhamo, and sent 165 kg (365 lb.) of gold to Pindale Min at Ava. (geh-196-197)
  • Pindale gave permission. He and his 700 disarmed followers were set up at Sagaing. But they were virtual prisoners.
  • Remnants of Ming army driven out of Sichuan by the Qing tried to rescue their emperor, and set up a kingdom in Burma.
  • Invaded Shan states. Occupied Nyaungshwe and Mone.
  • 30 March to 3 April 1659 (8th to 12th waxing of Tagu 1021) (hy-3-261): Five regiments marched to the front
  • April 1659: Ming forces defeated the Burmese army at Wetwin (near Maymyo) and again at Tada-U (near Mandalay), just north of Ava.
  • 29 April-1 May 1659 (9th waxing of Kason 1021) (hy-3-262): Battle of Ava
Ming forces broke through the last Burmese defensive line guarding Ava on April 29
1 May 1659: Ming forces attacked a heavily fortified Ava defended by Portuguese cannon and muskets
Having lost many men to scale the walls, Ming army retreated to Tada-U
  • After 2 days at Tada-U, they retreated back to their base at Mone
  • 19 September 1659 (3rd waxing of Thadingyut 1021) (hy-3-262): Burmese armies led by the king's brothers Pye Min (governor of Prome) and governor of Toungoo left to Mone to drive out the Ming
  • Armies failed to drive out the Ming
  • 23 December 1659 (10th waxing of Pyatho 1021): Reinforcement armies sent but still failed to drive them out
  • 1660: Chinese continued to ravage Shan states and raided Upper Burma
  • 9 January 1661 (9th waxing of Pyatho 1022) (hy-3-264): Ming forces again enter Upper Burma for another round of raids (geh-197)
  • 13 February 1661 (Full moon of Tabodwe 1022): Burmese army was dispatched to drive out the invaders but was defeated at Pagan
  • Chinese took up positions north and south of Ava. They plundered the countryside, with the Burmese king essentially powerless to stop the raiders.
  • The king could not rally the remainder of the country to drive out the invaders.
Per Harvey: "The king ruled much the same area as Bayinnaung, and had the same resources at his disposal. Bayinnaung would have found a speedy remedy: He would have marched a large force and exacted such reprisals that no Chinaman would have dared to show his face for a generation. But the king was spiritless and commanded no real following."
  • 4 June 1661: Pye Min overthrows his brother and becomes king
  • 1 July 1661 (5th waxing of Waso 1023) (hy-3-269): Two regiments sent to attack Ming forces at Aung Pinle (near Mandalay, north of Ava). Successfully drove them out.
  • 16 July 1661 (5th waning of Waso 1023): Five regiments (four of which were Shan; led by Mogaung, Mohnyin, Momeik and Thibaw) attacked Chinese positions south of Ava.
  • Southern Chinese line resisted successive Burmese attacks for months but continued to pile up casualties from the attacks as well as from disease.
  • 9 November 1661 (Wed, 4th waning of Tazaungmon 1023) (hy-3-272): decimated Ming forces finally evacuated their positions, leaving most of their property. (The Asiatic journal and monthly register for British and foreign India, pp. 189-190)
  • Ming emperor's followers at Sagaing were either dispersed or executed.
  • 21 December 1661 (1st waxing of Pyatho 1023) (hy-3-273): Burmese problems were not over. A Qing army of 20,000 under Gen. Wu Sangui showed up at the gates of Ava, and demanded the surrender of the Ming emperor.
  • 15 January 1662: The Ming emperor and his family were handed over to the Qing general. (Asiatic, p. 190)
  • 22 January 1662: Qing forces left

Siamese invasions (1662–1664) edit

Main article: Burmese–Siamese War (1662–1664)

While Burma had its hands full with the Chinese invasions (1659–1662), Siam encouraged a rebellion at Martaban.

  • 17 March 1662 (13th waning of Tabaung 1023) (hy-3-276): Received news that Martaban had revolted; dispatched Minye Zeyathu to Pegu to prepare for war
  • 19–26 October 1662 (8th waxing to full moon of Tazaungmon 1024) (hy-3-277): Army and naval units left Pegu for Martaban
  • November-December 1662: Retook Martaban and Tavoy (app-139)
  • Followed up on the Siamese via the Three Pagodas Pass down the Ataran river down to Kanchanaburi.
  • But repulsed before they got to the fort. Many more died in retreat by Siamese ambushes (geh-198)
  • Meanwhile, a larger Siamese army invaded Lan Na. Burmese were caught off-guard, rushed to send reinforcements.
  • 10 February 1663 (4th waxing of Tabaung 1024) (hy-3-277): Chiang Mai fell. Siamese forces then repulsed reinforcement armies.
  • 26 April 1663 (5th waning of Kason 1025): Sent reinforcements to Martaban by sea
  • November 1663: Siam launched a two-pronged attack on the Tenasserim coast: Martaban and Moulmein in the north and Tavoy in the south. Head of Siamese army was a son of King Narai.
  • Minye Zeyathu's defenses held. Siamese could not take any of the towns. Son of Narai died in battle on his war elephant.
  • May (Kason 1026): Siamese forces withdrew before the start of the rainy season.
  • Meanwhile, Siamese occupation forces in Chiang Mai were holed up in a deserted city. They were constantly attacked by resistance forces whenever they ventured out the city.
  • Late November 1664: Siamese troops evacuated their garrison, and returned to Siam.
  • 4 December 1664: (2nd waning of Natdaw 1026): Appointed Minye Minhla Kyaw as governor of Lan Na

Siam (1675–1676) edit

  • 3 April 1675 (8th waxing of Tagu 1675) (hy-3-295): received news that Siamese forces had entered Martaban district
  • 28 April to 15 May 1675 (4th waxing to 6th waning of Kason 1037) (hy-3-295): Six regiments were dispatched to chase away the Siamese
  • Rainy season: made preparations to attack Siam
  • 8 November 1675 (6th waning of Tazaungmon 1037): Northern army stationed at Chiang Mai, led by Sawbwa of Thibaw, invaded from the north.
  • 5 December 1675 (4th waning of Natdaw 1037): Southern army invaded from Martaban
  • But neither invasion army could not make any headway, and retreated.

Siam (1700–1701) edit

  • 28 July 1700 (12th waxing of Wagaung 1062) (hy-3-332): King Sanay appointed generals to lead the invasion of Siam
  • Planned a two-pronged invasion: via Chiang Mai and Martaban
  • Total strength: 12,000 (6 regiments each)
  • 13 November 1700 (2nd waxing of Natdaw 1062): Southern army left Martaban for invasion. Soon followed by the northern army
  • Neither army could break through.
  • 14 January 1701 (5th waxing of Tabodwe 1062): Reinforcements sent from Martaban. But failed to make a dent to Siamese defenses
  • Armies had to withdraw

Manipuri raids (1724, 1735–1741, 1744, 1749) edit

  • Manipur was tributary to Burma (1560–1594) but had gone its own way since.
  • It raided Upper Chindwin region in 1647 and 1692. In 1704, the raja of Manipur presented his daughter to Ava.
  • Manipur under the leadership of Gharib Nawaz became a thorn to Upper Burma (geh-208)
  • Early 1724: Manipuris raided Upper Burma
  • 20 November 1724 (5th waxing of Natdaw 1086) (hy-3-361): An expedition force (3000, 300H) marched to Manipur.
  • December: But it was ambushed in the swamps at Heirok (near Thoubal), and army retreated in haste. (geh-208)
  • 1735: Manipuris came to Myedu in Shwebo district, and carried off loot, cattle and a thousand people
  • Kabaw valley now belonged to Manipur
  • 3 September 1737 (9th waxing of Tawthalin 1099) (hy-3-367): A detachment was sent to north of Dabayin to ward off another raid.
  • But could not stop the raiders, who swept down to Dabayin.
  • January 1738 (Pyatho 1099): Manipuris defeated a larger force at Dabayin, killing two thirds of the army. (Burmese army commander was drunk.) Plundered pagodas, and carried away with loot
  • 1 November 1738 (5th waning of Tazaungmon 1100) (hy-3-368): Another expedition army left Ava.
  • But was driven back and fell back to Upper Chindwin
  • May 1739: Army set up two garrisons in Upper Chindwin (Mingin and Myedu) to guard the raids
  • December 1739 (Natdaw 1101) (hy-3-368): Manipuris came down again. Simply bypassed Burmese garrisons, and came all the way down to west of Sagaing.
  • Looted and burned everything in sight.
  • Destroyed the Burmese stockade built to guard the Kaunghmudaw Pagoda, and killed the garrison.
  • 15 November 1740 (12th waning of Tazaungmon 1102) (hy-3-371): Three armies marched to Upper Chindwin valley to meet the raiders
  • Many battles fought near Myedu. Neither side gained a decisive advantage.
  • Early 1741: After a protracted stalemate, both sides agreed to an uneasy truce. The Manipuris sent an envoy with a jacket for the raja kinswoman, who had been presented to the Burmese king in 1704.
  • In 1744, another raid came down to Ava. (hy-3-376). The Manipuris came down again. Their chief Brahmin insisted on preaching to the king of Ava, and to convert him to Hinduism. But he died after a month at the gates of Ava.
  • In 1749, Gharib Nawaz came on his last raid, thinking "If there is an opportunity to fight, I will fight; and if there is not, I will present a daughter." On reaching Ava, he found a large Burmese army waiting for him, and decided not to engage. He presented his 12-year-old daughter who accompanied him. (geh-209)
  • "The Manipuris were occasionally troubled by Burmese levies but usually did what they liked. Living in an obscure valley, knowing nothing of the outer world, they thought themselves heroes, able to take their pleasure of Burma, when they willed. They did not realize that Burma was several times the size of their country, and that they were laying up for themselves a frightful vengeance, and the only reason vengeance never seemed to come was that Burma happened to be under an incapable king." (geh-209)

Lan Na rebellion (1727–1728, 1731) edit

  • October 1727: Governor of Chiang Mai killed because of high taxation
  • 16 October 1727 (2nd waxing of Tazaungmon 1089) (hy-3-363): An army was rushed to Chiang Mai via Mone
  • The army retook Chiang Mai after a fierce battle. But with their guard down, the army was ambushed by the rebels as the troops left the city.
  • Furious of the news, the king ordered the commanders executed. Upon hearing the news, the commanders committed suicide.
  • Southern Lan Na (Ping valley) was now independent of Ava. The ruler was still Burmese.
  • 1731: Another expedition was sent. Reached the gates of Chiang Mai but could not break it.
  • Lan Na was free of further intrusions from Ava. (It would remain independent until 1757 when its ruler submitted to Alaungpaya.)

Restored Hanthawaddy (1740–1752) edit

  • Early 1740: Taking advantage of the king's troubles with the Manipuri raids, governor of Pegu, Tha Aung, revolted, and declared himself king. But he was soon killed by his commanders.
  • August 1740 (Wagaung 1102) (hy-3-370): King sent an army of 5000 to Pegu to quell the instabilities
  • Army arrived at Pegu, entered the city without a fight. Minye Aung Naing was appointed governor.
  • October: Army left to defend against another Manipuri raid.
  • But Minye Aung Naing proved to be a tyrant. He was soon killed by ethnic Mon officials.
  • The officials then selected a son of governor of Pagan (brother of the king), Smim Htaw Buddhaketi, as their king.
  • Ava could not respond right away. Its armies were at the front against the Manipuris.
  • With the help of Binnya Dala (nee Aung Hla, Master of the Elephant Stables at Pegu), the new king rounded up support throughout Lower Burma, including Toungoo and Prome. But not Martaban and Tavoy whose governors fled to Siam. (geh-212)
  • Entered into an alliance with ruler of Chiang Mai by marrying his daughter.
  • They had also enlisted some renegade Dutch and Portuguese musketeers.
  • Between 1742 and 1747, the war "carried on languidly", with neither side achieving any lasting advantage. (app-146)
  • In 1742, the southern forces began raiding annually up the Irrawaddy river as far as Ava. Ava's troops offered resistance but did not follow down to the delta because they were liable to be recalled against the Manipuris. (geh-212)
  • In 1743, Ava troops came down and occupied Syriam. Like in 1728 in Chiang Mai, the army celebrated too soon. One night, Hanthawaddy troops attacked drunken Ava troops, and drove them out with heavy loss.
  • In 1744, Ava (14 regiments, 10,000 men) attacked Hanthawaddy held Toungoo but were driven back. Later that year, Hanthawaddy forces invaded up the Irrawaddy again. Driven back at Malun (near Minhla, Magway).
  • In 1745–1746, Hanthawaddy forces occupied Minbu district but soon found themselves out of supplies, and had to retreat.
  • 1747: Hanthawaddy forces again came up, and attacked the fort at Malun by land and by river. Ava forces survived the siege.
  • December 1747: Binnya Dala came to power, and was determined to finish the war. He was not satisfied to gain independence for Lower Burma itself but determined to make Upper Burma its tributary. "as a quintessentially Mon kingdom, ordained by prophecy, wherein Mon language and cultural symbols would enjoy pride of place, and the Burman north would become a tributary". (vbl-204-205)
  • He at once stopped the annual raids, instead began planning for a proper invasion that could deliver a coup-de-grace to the sickly regime at Ava.
  • He sought and received French help in firearms.
  • Alarmed, Ava too sought support from Qing China, which sent two military advisers to observe the situation. But no help materialized. (hy-3-389)
  • Ava's defenses were led by Toungoo Yaza, who was given total authority by the king. (hy-3-390)
  • Defensive line began close to Ava. On the Irrawaddy, a fort Sinbyukyun (near Chauk) to guard against a naval invasion, and to defend against a land-based attack, a series of forts at Sintgaing, Tada-U and Pinya en route to Ava.
  • Ava's 33-gate walls were reinforced.
  • In November 1750, Hanthawaddy launched a full scale invasion by land and by river. (hy-3-389)
  • Strength: ~30,000 (app-151); [(hy-3-390) says 40,000 (20,000 by land and 20,000 by river) but it was only after counting additional conscripts the invasion forces picked up along the way.]
  • Land army led by Talaban, Naval army led by Upayaza
  • Land and naval armies advanced at a deliberate rate. Capturing towns and getting more conscripts along the way.
  • Upayaza's naval units broke through Sinbyukyun fort.
  • 12 January 1752 (11th waning of Pyatho 1113) (hy-3-390): Sintgaing fort fell.
  • At the same time, Upayaza's naval forces landed near Ava, threatening to encircle the remaining forts at Tada-U and Pinya. They fell quickly.
  • Mid January 1752: Siege of Ava began. People starved.
  • 21 March 1752 (6th waxing of Tagu 1114) (hy-3-392): City's outer defenses fell.
  • 23 March 1752: Entire city captured. End of Toungoo Dynasty.

Bayinnaung edit

1550s edit

  • 17 November 1553, Friday, 13th waxing of Natdaw 915 (hy-2-281): Kanbawzathadi Palace built.

1560s edit

1570s edit

  • Mon, 30 April 1571 (Sat, 7th waxing of Nayon 933) (my-2-336): Daughter Min Khin Saw (by Sanda Dewi) is married to her first cousin, Minye Thihathu of Toungoo
  • 25 February 1577 (Monday, 9th waxing of Tabaung 938) (hy-3-42): Nyaungyan Min marries his half sister, Khin Hpone Myat (or Khin Hpone Myint) (hy-3-68), daughter of minor queen Shin Htwe Myat
  • 2 January 1579 (5th waxing of Tabodwe 940) (hy-3-46): Queen Maha Dewi of Lanna dies

Territories edit

Chronicles list an extensive list of territories that paid tribute to the king. (Than Tun 1985: xiv-xv)

  • Annam
  • Ayutthaya
  • Bassein
  • Bhamo
  • Chiengmai
  • Dvaravati
  • Hota
  • Hsenwi
  • Hsipaw
  • Kaing Mah
  • Kale
  • Kathe (Manipur)
  • Keng Hsi
  • Keng Hung
  • Kengtung
  • Ketumati (Toungoo)
  • Laisa
  • Lawk Sawk
  • Maing San
  • Mekkhaya
  • Mang Pat
  • Martaban
  • Mogaung
  • Mohnyin
  • Mong Kung
  • Mong Man
  • Mong Mit
  • Mong Nai
  • Mong Nung
  • Mong Wun
  • Mong Yang
  • Myek Hna Me (Chin)
  • Myin Zaing
  • Nawng Wawn
  • Ohn Baung (Old Hsipaw)
  • Pagan
  • Pinya
  • Pisanulok
  • Sanda
  • Sigwin
  • Sukothai
  • Tannessarim
  • Taungdwin
  • Tavoy
  • Tharrawaddy
  • Thayaykhittaya
  • Viencheng
  • Yadanapura (Ava)
  • Yamethin
  • Yawnghwe

Mingyi Swa edit

  • born on Sunday, 2nd waning of Natdaw, 920 ME = 27 November 1558 (NSN 1966: xxviii): from Maha Upayaza eigyin by Thinkhay, Governor of Talote

Natshinnaung (1920). U Ohn Shwe (ed.). Natshinnaung Yadu Collection (in Burmese) (1966, 3rd printing ed.). Yangon: Hanthawaddy.

Nyaungyan edit

  • (my-3-128): At 41, in Waso 959 (July 1597) he became lord of Upper Burma. It means he was born before Waso 918 (1556).
  • (my-3-126): He died on 11th waning of Tabaung 967 (3 March 1606) as he entered his 50th year. It means he was born on or around 11th waning of Tabaung 917 (6 March 1556).

Anaukpetlun edit

  • (hy-3-182): at Chiang Mai, on Wednesday, 4th waxing of 977 ME (1 May 1615; but it was a Friday), grants the title of Minyedeippa to his son
  • (hy-3-183-184): Monday, 9th waxing of Tazaungmon 982 ME (2 November 1620)
  • grants younger brother Minye Theinkhathu (Thalun Min) the title of Thado Dhamma Yaza, and gives Prome, Salin, Kyaukku, and Pinya in fief.
  • grants younger brother Saku Mingyi the title of Minyekyawswa, and gives Saku, Keinni, Pyinmana, Pyinbya and Ava

Pindale edit

  • 8th waxing of Tazaungmon 1018 (hy-3-258-259): Minye Theinkhathu born to chief queen (Atula Sanda Dewi)
  • 5th waxing of Tabaung 1018: daughter Thiri Hpone Htut marries nephew lord of Salin
  • 6th waning of Natdaw 1019: begins construction of new palace
  • 3rd waxing of Tabaung 1019: Chief queen Atula dies
  • 7th waning of Natdaw 1020: Thiri Hpone Htut dies during child birth

Minyekyawdin edit

  • Friday, 9th waxing of Natdaw 1046 (hy-3-300): left the capital to visit Chiang Mai
  • Tuesday, 4th waxing of Tawthalin 1047: Mother died.
  • 12th waning of Kason 1049 (hy-3-302): Sanda Dewi (2nd chief queen) and mother of Heir Apparent Sanay Min died.

Arakan edit

Narameithla Min Saw Mon edit

  • 29 November 1406 (Monday, 5th waning of Natdaw 768): Fall of Launggyet to Minyekyawswa (sml-2-9)
  • Minkhaung I appoints Anawrahta Saw, governor of Kale as Viceroy of Arakan, gives his daughter to him
  • A year later, late 1407, Razadarit sends a force led by Gen. Binnya Dein (5000 troops) and Min Khayi (sml-2-10)
  • 2nd Minyekyawswa invasion --> appoints governor of Myinsaing as new governor
  • Tabaung 790: Bengal backed invasion by Narameithla (sml-2-11)
  • Bengal general Wali Khan imprisons Narameithla but he escapes
  • 18 April 1429 (Thursday, 1st waning of Kason 791): Another invasion succeeds and Narameithla ascends to throne (sml-2-11)
  • 20 August 1430 (Sunday, 1st waxing of Tawthalin 792): City of Mrauk U founded. (sml-2-13) -- Different from the Myanma Swezon Kyan date of 1st waxing of Natdaw 792, which is 16 November 1430. -- Different from Harvey's 1433 date
  • 9 May 1433 (Saturday, 6th waning of Kason 795): Narameithla dies. Succeeded by Min Khayi. (sml-2-18) -- Harvey's date is 1434

Scrap edit

  • An early Shan chronicle found by Captain R.D. Pemberton around 1835: Confusing narrative of fact and fiction, didactic and straight forward, religious and secular material... The chronicle duplicated individuals and events two centuries apart. For example, the sack of Ava in 1527 by the Confederation of Shan States is reported as having occurred in the 1330s. (mat-1996-884)
  • The earliest mention of the Shan was in a 1120 Pagan inscription. (mat-1996-897)
  • More than 300 inscriptions of the Ava period have been identified. (mat-1996-893)
  • The first ever publication of Old Burmese inscriptions was in 1892 by Tun Nyein. (mat-1996-895)
  • The rich literature available in the Ava period is mainly in verse and extremely difficult to understand even for native speakers of the language. And those few who are immersed and competent in the subject have shown little interest in the kinds of broader historical issues. There are no scholarly exegeses of the only two surviving chronicles believed to have been written in the Ava period: (the Yazawin Kyaw and parts of the Zatadawbon) -- (mat-1996-895-896)

Mongol era Chinese names edit

  • 城緬 Chéng Miǎn / Ch'eng Mien (Simplified 城缅) -- City of Mian (Htin Aung 1967: 70)
  • 中緬 Zhōng Miǎn / Chung Mien. (Simplified, 中缅) -- Central Mian (Htin Aung 1967: 72)

Mongol-era names of provinces of Burma in Chinese characters and in pinyin edit

The Mongols set up two separate provinces in Upper Burma after their invasions in the late 13th century. My sources say the first province with the provincial capital at Tagaung in northern Burma was named "Cheng-Mien" or "Chiang-Mien", supposedly meaning the "Burmese capital". It was set up around 1284/1285. The second province in central Burma was named "Chung-Mien" some time after the invasion of 1287. Would anyone know their Chinese and pinyin spellings? Thanks. Hybernator (talk) 16:13, 23 July 2012 (UTC)

Just two educated guesses: 城緬 Chéng Miǎn / Ch'eng Mien, 中緬 Zhōng Miǎn / Chung Mien. (Simplified, they are 城缅 & 中缅) --151.41.215.88 (talk) 16:40, 23 July 2012 (UTC)
Wow, that's quick. Thanks! I think your guesses are good. Just found this book by Marco Polo [1] which describes the "City of Mien", which must be Chéng Miǎn. Zhōng Miǎn makes sense too since it was in central Burma. Thanks again. Hybernator (talk) 17:20, 23 July 2012 (UTC)
Chinese Wikipedia's list of provinces of the Yuan empire only has Mianzhong (缅中): zh:緬中行省, but notes that it was also known as Zhengmian (征緬). Hybernator, I note that Zhengmian would have been transliterated in W-G as "Cheng-mien", and Mianzhong as "Mien-chung", which seems similar to what your source suggests. Based on some brief searches these names are also reflected in other sources.
Is it possible that there was only one province but its name was changed as the political situation changed? Also, is it possible that your original source may have reversed the characters for the second name (i.e. from Mianzhong to Zhongmian)?
For completeness, these two names in traditional, simplified and pinyin are as follows:
T: 緬中行省 S: 缅中行省 P: Miǎnzhōng Xíngshěng
T: 征緬行省 S: 征缅行省 P: Zhēngmiǎn Xíngshěng
If it helps, "行省" is the customary abbreviation of "行中书省", a Yuan dynasty regional administrative function which is the direct ancestor of the Chinese "province" in later dynasties and even today. It is usually translated as "province" but literally meant "the Secretariat-in-action". --PalaceGuard008 (Talk) 09:50, 24 July 2012 (UTC)
Thanks very much. But what does (征緬) Zhēngmiǎn mean? The "City of Mien" reference in the Marco Polo book above seems to favor Chéngmiǎn (城緬) but apparently, it may not have been the true administrative/official name.
One of my two sources, (Htin Aung "A History of Burma" 1967: 70), says according to Chinese sources, Mongols set up the first province of "Chiang-mien" meaning "Burmese province" around 1284/1285. I think this W-G spelling is incorrect. Another source (Than Tun "History of Burma: A.D. 1300–1400" 1959) gives the spelling of Cheng-mien. Also only Htin Aung, again citing "Chinese sources", says the Mongols declared central Burma to be the second province of "Chung-mien" some time after 1287. (Than Tun 1959) doesn't say anything about Chung-mien. It only states that the Mongols abolished the province of Cheng-mien per the emperor's decree dated 4 April 1303. Nothing about "Chung-mien". But I can see your point about a change in the political situation leading to a name change. Mongols could have renamed the existing province from either Chéngmiǎn or Zhēngmiǎn to Miǎnzhōng after the 1287 invasion. So when they did abolish it, they abolished one province, not two. Anyway, now I know the official name was Miǎnzhōng. Thanks again. Hybernator (talk) 01:12, 25 July 2012 (UTC)
Zhēngmiǎn (征緬) literally means "subjugating / conquering Mian (Burma)". I did try to search for references to Chéngmiǎn (城緬) as well but could not find any relevant references. Is it possible that "Capital of Mian" was a post facto (mis)interpretation by someone who saw the W-G "Chengmian" derived from Zhēngmiǎn (征緬)?
This may be relevant: in Chinese translations of Marco Polo the phrase you referred to ("city of Mian") tends to be translated as either "緬城" (Miancheng, "Mian city") or "緬州" (Mianzhou, "Mian prefecture"), but I am not sure to what extent the translators just made those names up based on a literal translation of Marco's words.
Another relevant note is that I found discussions in Chinese sources on the administrative divisions of the Yuan dynasty which suggested that the "expeditionary" xingshengs are different in nature from the other "administrative" xingshengs - while the latter are properly "provinces" similar to the xingshengs of the later dynasties, the former were almost purely military functions during invasions. It is suggested that Zhengmian at least definitely fell within the "expeditionary" category.--PalaceGuard008 (Talk) 09:40, 25 July 2012 (UTC)
Thanks. Very informative. Could Zhēngmiǎn be translated as "Subjugated Burma"? If so, it could have been the name of the first "province" (or colony, or whatever). Now, staying with your "subjugating / conquering Mian (Burma)", it's quite probable that Zhēngmiǎn (a la Operation Subjugate Burma) was the name of the campaign, and Mianzhong Xíngshěng (Province of Central Burma) the name of the new province. Plausible, though we're still in the realm of speculation. I wonder if the Chinese Wikipedia's editors have cited an authoritative source (preferably one that cites the original records.) It'll help me put in the findings from this discussion in the Mongol invasions of Burma article. So far, all I've been able to confirm is that the names reported in my Burmese sources, although the authors say they got the names from Chinese sources, is at best incomplete. Anyway, if you do find anything, please reach out to me at my talk page. Thanks again. Hybernator (talk) 00:28, 26 July 2012 (UTC)

Hall's Burmese edit

  • Hall did not read Burmese. He was dependent on Phayre, Harvey and Luce for the indigenous, narrative side of Burma's history. (mat-2005-293)

Wun Zin Min Yaza edit

  • died in 783 ME (1421) -- (hy-2-51)

References edit

  1. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 449
  2. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 210
  3. ^ Maha Yazawin Vol. 1 2006: 314
  4. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 450
  5. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 214–215
  6. ^ a b Pan Hla 2005: 216
  7. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference app-71 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Harvey 1925: 88
  9. ^ a b Cite error: The named reference mat-255 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  10. ^ Hmannan Vol. 1 2003: 454
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference hy-1-453 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ Yazawin Thit Vol. 1 2012: 217
  13. ^ Pan Hla 2005: 219–220
  14. ^ Aung-Thwin 2017: 255–256
  15. ^ Htin Aung, pp. 110–111
  16. ^ a b Harvey, pp. 157–158
  17. ^ Hmannan, Vol. 2, p. 146
  18. ^ Hmannan, Vol. 2, p. 222
  19. ^ Hmannan, Vol. 2, p. 229
  20. ^ Hmannan, Vol. 2, p. 238
  21. ^ Hmannan, Vol. 2, pp. 282–284
  22. ^ a b Phayre, pp. 107–108
  23. ^ Thaw Kaung, p. 107
  24. ^ Hmannan, Vol. 2, pp. 315–318
  25. ^ a b Wyatt, p. 80
  26. ^ Phayre, p. 109
  27. ^ Hmannan, Vol. 2, p. 335–337
  28. ^ Hmannan, Vol. 2, p. 344
  29. ^ Hmannan, Vol. 2, p. 340–341
  30. ^ Hmannan, Vol. 2, p. 338

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Notes edit


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