Tangier disease
editTangier disease (also known as Familial alpha-lipoprotein deficiency) or Hypoalphalipoproteinemia is a rare inherited disorder (autosomal recessive) familial disorder characterized by a severe reduction in the amount of high density lipoprotein (HDL), reduction in total cholesterol and increased triglyceride levels in serum.[1]
History
editIn 1959, a five-year-old patient named Teddy Laird from Tangier Island, Virginia, presented with strikingly large and yellow-orange tonsils which were noticed by a physician during a tonsillectomy, which was the most common surgical procedure performed on children at the time. Histopathology examinations revealed many foam cells along the surface of the tonsils, in the septa, and extending into the lymph follicles.[2] After initial diagnosis with Niemann-Pick Disease, he was transferred to Dr. Louis Avioli at the National Cancer Institute. Donald Fredrickson, then head of the Molecular Disease Branch, became aware of the case and had a hunch that the original diagnosis was incorrect. In 1960 he traveled with Dr. Avioli to Tangier Island for further investigation. After finding the same symptom in Teddy's sister and more investigations revealed an extremely high number of foam cells in not only the tonsils but a wide range of tissues including the bone marrow and spleen, a second trip to the island was made.[2] The discovery made was of very low HDL cholesterol in both the sister and parents of Teddy, evidence for a genetic basis of the disease. The HDL patterns observed in remaining relatives were consistent with the inheritance of Tangier disease in Mendelian terms as an autosomal recessive.[3] Autosomal recessive are more common in specific ethnic group with unaffected parents and the trait tends to skip generations. Also, males and females are equal in proportion while each offspring of carrier parents has 25% chance of being affected, 50% of being a carrier.[3]
Tangier disease is caused by mutations in the 'ATP-Binding Cassette transporter A1' (ABCA1) gene, which encodes the membrane transporter ABCA1. The ABCA1 gene resides on chromosome 9q22-q31, contains 50 exons, and codes for a 2261-amino acid long membrane protein.[4] This gene provides instructions for making a protein that releases cholesterol and phospholipids from cells. These substances are used to make HDL, which transports them to the liver.[5] Tangier disease is a rare disorder with approximately 100 cases identified worldwide. More cases are likely undiagnosed. [6]
Frequency
editTangier disease was first diagnosed in two children in 1960 and as of 2006 only approximately 50 cases of Tangier Disease had been diagnosed worldwide.[7] Between 2006 and December of 2013, new diagnoses grew that number to around 100 individuals. Misdiagnosis and lack of diagnosis leave it nearly impossible to estimate the true frequency of Tangier Disease, however it is currently estimated to be approximately <1:1,000,000.[8][9]
Diagnosis
editHigh-density lipoproteins are created when a protein in the bloodstream, Apolipoprotein A1 (apoA1), combines with cholesterol and phospholipids. The cholesterol and phospholipids used to form HDL originate from inside cells but are transported out of the cell into the blood via the ABCA1 transporter. People with Tangier disease have defective ABCA1 transporters.[10] This results in a reduced ability to transport cholesterol out of their cells, which leads to an accumulation of cholesterol and phospholipids in many body tissues, which can cause them to increase in size.[10] Reduced blood levels of high-density lipoproteins is sometimes described as hypoalphalipoproteinemia.
People affected by this condition also have slightly elevated amounts of fat in the blood (mild hypertriglyceridemia) and disturbances in nerve function (neuropathy). The tonsils are visibly affected by this disorder; they frequently appear orange or yellow and are extremely enlarged.[4] Affected people often develop premature atherosclerosis, which is characterized by fatty deposits and scar-like tissue lining the arteries. Other signs of this condition may include an enlarged spleen (splenomegaly), an enlarged liver (hepatomegaly), clouding of the cornea, type II diabetes and early-onset cardiovascular disease. Anemia and some inflammation can also be observed.[4] In adult patients, neuropathy is a commonly observed symptom.[11]
Clinical symptoms may or may not be present, which is why many people remain undiagnosed. Diagnosis can be based off of low Apo1 levels in the blood as well as HDL screenings and can lead to more individuals affected with the disease being diagnosed.[12] However, these methods still do not give an accurate diagnosis of Tangiers. A gene sequence analysis of ABCA1 would be the most effective way to diagnose the disease. But a gene sequence analysis would be costly and complicated. Because Tangiers is so variable in its phenotype presentation, a correlation between genotype and phenotype has not been found. Prenatal testing is not common.[12]
Genetics
editMutations to chromosome 9q31 lead to a defective ABCA1 transporter.[13] ABCA1 is an ATP-binding cassette gene that makes proteins which are responsible for transportation of other molecules across the cell membrane.[13]The ABCA1 proteins move cholesterol and phospholipids across the membrane and outside the cell, allowing the substrates to be picked up by the apolipoprotein A-1 (ApoA1).[13] From here the ApoA1, cholesterol, and phospholipids combine to make high-density lipoproteins.[13] The ABCA1 protein is found in many tissues but is highly concentrated in the liver and in macrophages.[13]
Over 30 mutations in ABCA1 gene are linked to Tangier disease.[9] Most mutations are missense mutations.[9] Mutations are found throughout the protein, though most linked to Tangier disease are near or within ATP binding domains and the N-terminus.[14] These mutations prevent the ABCA1 protein from effectively transporting cholesterol and phospholipids out of cells for pickup by ApoA1 in the bloodstream.[4] This inability to transport cholesterol out of cells leads to a deficiency of high-density lipoproteins in the circulation, which is a risk factor for coronary artery disease.[4] Additionally, the buildup of cholesterol in cells can be toxic, causing cell death or impaired function.[13] Tissues will often enlarge as more substrate accumulates. It also results in the tonsils growing and turning a yellow-orange color, neuropathies, enlarged spleen and liver, and ocular abnormalities.[13][14] These combined factors lead to the signs and symptoms of Tangier disease.
This condition is inherited in an autosomal recessive pattern meaning that for the phenotype to appear, two copies of the allele must be present. [5] Most often, the parents of an individual with an autosomal recessive disorder are carriers of one copy of the altered gene but do not display any of the symptoms of the disorder.[9] Heterozygotes tend to have half the normal amount of plasma HDL implying that the defect is co-dominant in nature.[14] On the other hand, even though they only have one functional ABCA1allele, heterozygotes tend to have normal LDL levels implying a gene threshold effect.[14]
References
edit- ^ Ropper, Allan; Samuels, Martin; Klein, Joshua (2014). Adams and Victor's Principles of Neurology (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Education. pp. 1347–1348. ISBN 0071794794.
- ^ a b Fredrickson, D.S.; Altrocchi, P.H.; Avioli, L.V.; Goodman, D.S.; Goodman, H.C. (1961). "Tangier Disease". Annals of Internal Medicine. 55: 1016–1017.
- ^ a b Von Eckardstein, A. (2006). "Differential diagnosis of familial high density lipoprotein deficiency syndromes". Atherosclerosis. 186: 231–239.
- ^ a b c d e Brunham, L.R.; Singaraja, R.R.; Hayden, M.R. (2006). "Variation on a gene: rare and common variants in ABCA1 and their impact on HDL cholesterol levels and atherosclerosis". Annual Review of Nutrition. 26: 105–129. Cite error: The named reference ":4" was defined multiple times with different content (see the help page).
- ^ a b Stefková, J.; Poledne, R.; Hubácek, J.A. (2004). "ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters in human metabolism and diseases". Physiological Research. 53: 235–243.
- ^ Nofer, J.R.; Remaley, A.T. (2005). "Tangier disease: still more questions than answers". Cell Molecular Life Science. 62: 2150–2160.
- ^ Kolovou, G.D.; Mikhailidis, D.P.; Anagnostopoulou, K.K.; Daskalopoulou, S.S; Cokkinos, D.V. (2006). "Tangier Disease Four Years of Research: A Reflection of the Importance of HDL". Current Medical Chemistry. 13: 771–782.
- ^ "Tangier Disease".
- ^ a b c d "Tangier Disease".
- ^ a b Rust, S.; Rosier, M.; Funke, H (1999). "Tangier disease is caused by mutations in the gene encoding ATP-binding cassette transporter 1". National Genetics. 22: 352–355.
- ^ Sinha, S.; Mahadevan, A.; Lokesh, L.; Ashraf, V.; Chandrasekhar Sagar, B.K.; Talk, A.B.; Shankar, S.K. (2003). "Tangier disease—a diagnostic challenge in countries endemic for leprosy". Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry. 75: 301–304 – via Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery & Psychiatry.
- ^ a b Punto, M.; Sbrana, F.; Bigazzi, F.; Sampletro, T. (2012). "Tangier Disease: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, and Management". American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs. 12:5: 303–311 – via American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs.
- ^ a b c d e f g Reference, Genetics Home. "ABCA1 gene". Genetics Home Reference. Retrieved 2016-11-29.
- ^ a b c d Oram, John F. (2000-12-15). "Tangier disease and ABCA1". Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Molecular and Cell Biology of Lipids. Cholesterol in the year 2000. 1529 (1–3): 321–330. doi:10.1016/S1388-1981(00)00157-8.