Masculinity edit
In recent years, a considerable amount of social psychology research has investigated the relevance of meat consumption to perceptions of masculinity.[2]
The participants in a series of 2012 studies rated mammalian muscle such as steak and hamburgers as more "male" than other foods, and responded more quickly in an implicit-association test when meat words were paired with typically male names than with female names.[2][3] In a different study, perceptions of masculinity among a sample of American undergraduates were positively linked to beef consumption and negatively linked to vegetarianism.[2][4] A 2011 Canadian study found that both omnivores and vegetarians perceived vegetarians as less masculine.[5][6] A 2016 review found that male Germans eat more meat than females, linking the discrepancy to the finding that meat in Western culture has symbolic connections to strength and power, which are associated with male gender roles.[7]
Studies have also examined meat eating in the context of attempts to manage others' impressions of the eater, finding that men whose masculinity had been challenged chose to eat more meat pizza instead of vegetable pizza.[8][9]
These results indicate that it is possible for dietary choices to influence perceptions of the eater's masculinity or femininity, with meat strongly correlated with perceived masculinity.[10] It has been suggested that meat consumption makes men feel more masculine, but it remains unclear whether this is the case and whether it is affected by social context.[2][4]
Cultural associations between meat and masculinity are reflected in individuals' attitudes and choices.[11] Across Western societies, women eat significantly less meat than men on average and are more likely to be vegetarian.[11][12] Women are also more likely to adopt meatless diets for animal welfare reasons.[13][11]
References edit
- ^ Leroy 2015, p. 207.
- ^ a b c d Vartanian 2015, p. 75.
- ^ Rozin et al. 2012.
- ^ a b Rothgerber 2013.
- ^ Loughnan, Bastian & Haslam 2014, p. 105.
- ^ Ruby & Heine 2011.
- ^ Büning-Fesel & Rückert-John 2016, pp. 2–4.
- ^ Vartanian 2015, p. 76.
- ^ Lipschitz 2009.
- ^ Vartanian 2015, p. 79.
- ^ a b c Ruby 2012, p. 148.
- ^ Arganini, C; Comitato, R; Saba, A; Turrini, A; Virgili, F (2012). "Gender Differences in Food Choice and Dietary Intake in Modern Western Societies". In Maddock, Jay (ed.). Public Health - Social and Behavioral Health. INTECH. ISBN 978-953-51-0620-3.
- ^ Amiot & Bastian 2015, p. 21.
Sources edit
Review articles
- Vartanian, Lenny R. (2015). "Impression management and food intake" (PDF). Appetite. 86: 74–80. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2014.08.021. PMID 25149198.
- Loughnan, S.; Bastian, B.; Haslam, N. (2014). "The Psychology of Eating Animals" (PDF). Current Directions in Psychological Science. 23 (2): 104–108. doi:10.1177/0963721414525781.
- Büning-Fesel, Margareta; Rückert-John, Jana (2016). "Warum essen Männer wie sie essen?". Bundesgesundheitsblatt (in German). 59 (8): 1–7. doi:10.1007/s00103-016-2379-7. PMID 27334501.
- Ruby, Matthew B. (2012). "Vegetarianism. A blossoming field of study" (PDF). Appetite. 58 (1): 141–150. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.09.019. PMID 22001025.
- Amiot, Catherine E.; Bastian, Brock (2015). "Toward a psychology of human-animal relations". Psychological Bulletin. 141 (1): 6–47. doi:10.1037/a0038147. PMID 25365760.
- Leroy, Frédéric; Praet, Istvan (2015). "Meat traditions. The co-evolution of humans and meat". Appetite. 90: 200–211. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2015.03.014. PMID 25794684.
Research articles
- Rozin, Paul; Hormes, Julia M.; Faith, Myles S.; Wansink, Brian (2012). "Is Meat Male? A Quantitative Multimethod Framework to Establish Metaphoric Relationships" (PDF). Journal of Consumer Research. 39 (3): 629–643. doi:10.1086/664970.
- Rothgerber, Hank (2013). "Real men don't eat (vegetable) quiche: Masculinity and the justification of meat consumption" (PDF). Psychology of Men & Masculinity. 14 (4): 363–375. doi:10.1037/a0030379.
- White, Katherine; Dahl, Darren W. (2006). "To Be or Not Be? The Influence of Dissociative Reference Groups on Consumer Preferences" (PDF). Journal of Consumer Psychology. 16 (4): 404–414. doi:10.1207/s15327663jcp1604_11.
- Ruby, Matthew B.; Heine, Steven J. (2011). "Meat, morals, and masculinity" (PDF). Appetite. 56 (2): 447–450. doi:10.1016/j.appet.2011.01.018. PMID 21256169.
Theses
- Lipschitz, Lisa Jodi (2009). Being Manly Men: Conveying Masculinity Through Eating Behaviour (PDF) (M.A., Psychology). University of Toronto.