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Robert O. Becker edit

Robert O. Becker
 
Robert O. Becker Age 56
Born
Robert Otto Becker

31 May 1923
River Edge, New Jersey
Died14 May 2008
Lowville, New York
Cause of deathPneumonia
Known forLimb regeneration
Cell dedifferentiation
Biopotential measurements
Electrical treatment of nonunions and osteomyelitis
Hazards of artificial environmental electromagnetic energy
Acupuncture
SpouseLillian Janet Moller (married 1946)
ChildrenMichael, Lisa, Adam
AwardsMiddleton Award (1964)
Nicholas Andry Award (1979)
Academic background
EducationGettysburg College
New York University School of Medicine
Bellevue Hospital (internship)
Dartmouth Medical School (pathology)
SUNY Downstate Medical Center (orthopedic residency)
InfluencesAlbert Szent-Gyorgi
Harold Burr
Marcus Singer
John von Neumann
W. Ross Ashby
Peter Medawar
Academic work
InstitutionsVeterans Administration Hospital
Upstate Medical School
LSU Medical School
Main interestsBiocybernetics
Bioelectricity
Biophysics
Public health
Notable worksMechanisms of Growth Control (1981)
Electromagnetism and Life (1982)
The Body Electric (1985)
Cross Currents (1990)

Robert Otto Becker (May 31, 1923–May 14, 2008) was a U.S. orthopedic surgeon who is best known for his research in biocybernetics. He spent his entire career at the Veterans Administration Hospital, Syracuse, New York, where he served as chief of orthopedic surgery, chief of research, and head of a research laboratory devoted to studying the role of bioelectrical phenomena in growth and healing, tissue regeneration, and the health impact of artificial environmental electromagnetic energy.[1]

Formative years edit

Robert Otto Becker was born in 1923 in River Edge, New Jersey, and raised in Valley Stream, New York, where his father Otto Julius Becker served as the pastor of St. Paul’s Lutheran Church for forty years;[2] his mother was Elizabeth Blanck Becker. In 1941 he entered Gettysburg College in Pennsylvania, where he majored in biology and performed his first experiments on salamander regeneration.[3] He served in the army from 1942 to 1946; when he completed his bachelor’s degree he entered medical school at New York University, and met and married Lillian Moller, a fellow student.[3] He obtained his medical degree in 1948, interned for a year, and for the next seven years studied pathology, surgery, and orthopedic surgery; for two of those years he was a medical officer in the army.[4] He chose to specialize in orthopedic surgery, and his training took place mostly at the Veterans Administration hospital in Brooklyn.

Professional life edit

The Veterans Administration offered Becker the opportunity to do supported research as well as clinical medicine, and in 1956 he became the chief of orthopedics at the Veterans Administration hospital in Syracuse, NY. The job was generally regarded as unattractive for a physician, but he accepted it in exchange for the resources and freedom to do research.[1] He also became an adjunct professor at the State University of New York, on the same campus as the hospital.

Becker was interested in the medically significant problem of how the body regulated growth and healing such that the processes started and stopped as appropriate for the host, and produced exactly the kind of tissue needed. He was influenced by the cybernetic concepts of John von Neumann and W. Ross Ashby, the biological theories of Rene Dubos, the scientific philosophy of Peter Medawar, the observations of Harold Burr in experimental biology, and the theory of bioelectronic energy flow proposed by Albert Szent-Gyorgi; he adapted their work to his interest in how biological processes were controlled.[1][3]

From the outset, Becker’s research was novel and controversial. His biocybernetic approach to the study of growth-related phenomena differed from the orthodox approach based on biochemistry. In each area where he pursued biocybernetic models he encountered criticism from established researchers who favored models based on reductionism. His critics included W. Ross Adey in the area of public health,[5] Lionel Jaffe in limb regeneration,[6] C. Andrew Bassett in side-effects of electrical stimulation,[7] Philip Handler in interpretation of animal studies,[8][9] Paul Weiss in the role of cellular dedifferentiation,[10] and Morris Shamos in the biophysics of bone.[11]

 
Becker's name added to memorial plaque in VA central office honoring winners of the Middleton Award. Photo taken in 1965.

Becker’s initial research studies were well received as evidenced by a series of fourteen papers in experimental biology published in prestigious journals during a four-year period in the early 1960s.[12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25] In 1964 he won the William A. Middleton Award, given by US Veterans Affairs to the scientist who produced the most outstanding research.[26] The same year he was appointed a Medical Investigator at the Veterans Administration, a distinction he held until 1976.

He believed that it was the duty of a taxpayer-funded researcher to speak directly to laypersons regarding his research results,[27] and he did so frequently throughout his twenty-year research career. Especially noteworthy were articles in Saturday Review,[28] Hutchings Journal,[29] the Medical World News,[30] and Technology Review,[31] his interview on the national television show “60 Minutes,”[32] his statements on public health made to the US House of Representatives,[33][34][35] and his testimony in hearings in New York concerning the health impacts of high-voltage powerlines.[36]

The cumulative effect of the novelty of his research and his practice of speaking publicly about its implications was the loss of his research funding from the National Institutes of Health and the Veterans Administration; according to an official at the Veterans Administration, Becker’s public activities brought unwanted controversy to the agency.[1] Following a public dispute with the president of the National Academy of Sciences regarding scientific bias in the evaluation of a public health issue,[8][9] Becker was forced to retire.[37]

Research edit

Wellspring studies edit

In 1958 Becker started research on how growth and healing are controlled. While investigating a clinical problem of muscle weakness,[12] he measured slowly changing electrical signals on the skin of his patients, which he concluded were the sign of internal electric currents. This work led to studies on salamanders in which he found that they exhibited a pattern of measurable electrical signals on the skin that corresponded to the anatomic structure of the nervous system, suggesting to him that the signals originated in nerves.[13] Working with salamanders, which naturally regenerate missing limbs, and frogs, which do not, he found important differences between the two species in the duration and polarity of the electrical signals in animals that had undergone surgical amputations, suggesting that the internal flow of electrical energy played a major role in the healing process.[14] He found that the energy flow along peripheral nerves in salamanders could be altered by applying a magnetic field [15] and by sectioning the nerves,[20] suggesting that the flow consisted of the movement of electrons rather than ions.

Becker found a neural-related pattern of electrical signals on the surface of the human body, paralleling the link he had seen in salamanders, and he measured changes in the signals from subjects in certain reduced-attention states including sleep and anesthesia.[19] He also found that the signals varied with changes in consciousness induced by hypnosis.[16] He raised the possibility that the signals were directly related to the mechanism that controlled the various cognitive states.[25]

In a four-year study, using data on magnetic storms collected by government agencies, he found a correlation between admissions to psychiatric wards and changes in the earth’s magnetic field, suggesting the possibility of the geomagnetic field’s influence on human behavior.[21][23][38]

He took these collective results as evidence of the working of a biocybernetic control system, separate from the well-known nerve-impulse system, that regulated healing and growth processes and mediated the link between living systems and the environment.[24][25]

Regeneration edit

Becker investigated the question of how fracture healing occurred in frogs by studying the morphological changes that occurred in cells at injury sites in relation to measured electrical changes.[39][40] The results convinced him that, during healing, some cells in the vicinity of the injury became transformed into stem cells—a process known as dedifferentiation—as a consequence of electrical signals that originated in the nervous system. This controversial phenomenon became an important focus in Becker’s pursuit of the larger question of regeneration in animals and in humans. In 1972 he electrically stimulated partial limb regeneration in a mammal, the rat,[41][42] and discovered that salamanders could spontaneously regenerate heart muscle and recover function after the heart had been cut open.[43] His ideas and experimental approach were generally not pursued in other laboratories, where a more biochemically oriented approach was favored, although there were exceptions.[44]

In the late 1970s, newspaper and magazine articles raised public interest in Becker’s approach to regeneration research.[45][46] He received indications of support from the head of the Veterans Administration, a congressman, and two US senators.[47] But fierce opposition ultimately blocked funding of his regeneration program,[1] except for his proposal to hold an international conference on regeneration.[48]

Bone bioelectricity edit

Becker believed that the currents flowing in the neural-based biocybernetic control system were electronic not ionic, and since the system involved instantaneous communications between distant points within the nervous system, he reasoned that the flow must occur by means of semiconduction. He confirmed that bone responded electrically to mechanical stress,[18] and hypothesized that regeneration of bone occurred as a result of internal electrical forces and electron currents, much as other healing and growth was controlled.[18] These ideas served as the rationale for detailed studies of how semiconduction, electromechanical forces, and bone growth were related, and as the basis for his proposed negative-feedback system for controlling bone growth.[49]

The existence of an electron conduction band was supported by studies using the techniques of electron paramagnetic resonance [22][50] and photoconductivity,[51][52] which allowed demonstration of mobile electrons in bone; flame spectroscopy, which allowed detection of trace elements in bone that could account for the origin of the mobile charge carriers;[53] and dielectric dispersion, which allowed detection of the water molecules that could account for the ability of charge carriers to enter the conduction band.[54] Becker showed that electromechanical signals in bone originated as a result of the piezoelectric effect manifested by the collagen matrix of bone,[55] and that the signals were probably directly related to bone growth.[56]

An important implication of Becker’s work on semiconduction is the suggestion that the origin of life might have been in a solid rather than in water.[57]

Clinical research edit

In the early 1970s, influenced by McLean and Urist’s admonition that “more reliance should be placed upon the primordial power of the human skeleton to regenerate injured and missing substance,”[58] Becker explored the clinical implications of the electrical control system with regard to stimulating regenerative healing in man.[59] He viewed the approach as a possible alternative to prosthetic implantation, which was then undergoing rapid expansion in use in orthopedic surgery. His approach to the use of electromagnetic energy for the promotion of healing differed markedly from that of other prominent orthopedists, who he felt were using levels of electrical energy in clinical treatment that had not been tested sufficiently in laboratory and animal studies and might be too high for purposes of safety and effectiveness.[60]

Using currents far smaller than those employed by other orthopedists who were using electrical methods,[61] he conducted laboratory experiments to evaluate both the mechanism of action and the effectiveness of the technique for particular applications, especially osteomyelitis.[62][63] In subsequent clinical applications he developed the use of anti-infective silver electrodes to improve the healing process,[64][65][66] and described his clinical technique in a textbook.[67] He remained concerned that the potential side-effect of the clinical use of electromagnetic energy had not been studied sufficiently.[68]

Acupuncture edit

Becker hypothesized that the underlying scientific explanation for the ancient Chinese method of clinical treatment known as acupuncture involved the flow of information via electromagnetic energy along channels in the body that were invisible to Western imaging techniques yet were regarded in China as ontologically real. Following Richard Nixon’s 1972 visit to China, limited research funding for acupuncture studies became available from the National Institutes of Health and Becker secured one of the grants. He focused his research on seeking evidence for the existence of the channels (meridians), the external locations on the skin where they could be accessed by clinicians (acupuncture points), and electrodermal activity occurring at the points. Between 1975 and 1979 he published experimental studies that provided evidence for each of these phenomena[69][70][71][72][73][74] as well as review and methods papers.[75][76] His research in these areas compared favorably with that of the other Western scientists who studied acupuncture.[77][78]

Public health edit

Becker reasoned that the physiological control system he had described[1][17][19][79] would be influenced by external electromagnetic energy because the system was electrical in nature. He presented supporting experimental evidence in November 1961 at a Massachusetts Institute of Technology symposium on magnetic fields, where he described correlations between changes in the geomagnetic field and admissions to psychiatric hospitals (subsequently described more fully[21][38]). In a literature review he concluded that the geomagnetic field could regulate living organisms, even though the underlying mechanisms were poorly understood.[24]

Following a laboratory study in which he found that artificially modulated magnetic fields altered human reaction times,[80] Becker agreed to a congressional request to testify in favor of a pending bill that would create pre-market safety regulations regarding permissible levels of electromagnetic energy emitted by commercial devices. He urged a cautionary approach,[33] and presented a supporting analysis in a report for the Joint Technical Advisory Committee of the IEEE.[81]

In 1972 he delivered a paper at an annual convention of the IEEE in which, based on considerations regarding the body’s cybernetic control system, he warned against “the continuous exposure of the entire North American population to an electromagnetic environment in which is present the possibility of inducing currents or voltages comparable with those now known to exist in biological control systems.”[31] Subsequently he reported experimental studies in which animals were exposed for relatively long times to artificial electromagnetic energy. Employing energy levels comparable to those in the general environment, he found that continuous exposure to the energy for periods of weeks or months caused altered growth rates in mice,[82][83] deficient bone healing in rats,[84][85] stress-related changes in the neuroendocrine system in rats,[86] and chromosome changes in tumor cells.[87] He published explanations of his work and that of others who found similar results, and in several publications discussed the implications of the animal studies with regard to human health risks.[88][89][90]

In a New York hearing on the safety of high-voltage powerlines, he testified in favor of independent research regarding the health risks of artificial environmental electromagnetic energy, and was cross-examined for four days.[36] He gave similar testimony before a congressional committee.[34] Becker was the first to use the term “electromagnetic pollution.”[89]

Forced retirement edit

During Becker’s public involvement in the four-year powerline hearings, his grant renewal requests were denied, sometimes without explanation; a main NIH grant that had funded positions in his lab for over a decade was terminated, as was his grant to study acupuncture.[1] Soon after he lost the grants, during an interview on “60 Minutes” in February 1977 regarding the Navy’s proposed Sanguine antenna, Becker suggested that the National Academy of Sciences committee then evaluating the safety of the antenna was biased against finding biological effects.[32] The Academy president Philip Handler, who had selected the committee, called for Becker’s firing; Becker continued to function as a staff physician but lost his appointment as Medical Investigator, which had the effect of reducing his staff by half.[1] In early 1979 the Veterans Administration closed his laboratory; with no capacity to continue his research, he retired. He was 56. In his preface to a 1985 book about the New York hearings and aftermath, he wrote that the book revealed not only the health hazard, but also “the hazards…of raising the issue.”[91]

Later life edit

In the following years, Becker wrote extensively about his research in articles,[92][93][94] books,[3][37][48][95] and public testimony,[34][35] recounting its history, explaining its meaning, and providing what he viewed as a coherent basis for examining medical issues in general and the specific issue of electromagnetic health risks. He cofounded the Journal of Bioelectricity (subsequently Electromagnetic Medicine and Biology), gave the 1983 President’s Guest Address before the American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons,[96] and testified again in congressional hearings on health risks from electromagnetic technologies.[35]

Becker articulated his views in four books. In Electromagnetism and Life, published in 1982, he argued that exposure to artificial environmental electromagnetic energy was a general biologic stressor and can produce functional changes in biological systems.[95] Mechanisms of Growth Control, published in 1981,[48] was the proceedings of an international conference on regeneration that he organized. Writing for a general audience in The Body Electric in 1985[3] and Cross Currents[37] in 1990, Becker summarized his research and his views on science and medicine in historical perspective.

He patented a cell-modification process in which cells were dedifferentiated by ions from electrically positive silver electrodes; the modified cells were said to be capable of regenerating organs and tissues.[97][98] An FDA-approved clinical study of his method was sponsored by the Sybron Corporation at the LSU Medical School in Shreveport to study the safety and efficacy of the method for treating osteomyelitis, but the Sybron product was not brought to market.[99]

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Marino, AA (2017). Becker the Researcher. Cassandra Publishing. ISBN 978-0981854939.
  2. ^ "New Hope Lutheran Church". Retrieved March 14, 2018.
  3. ^ a b c d e Becker, RO; Selden, G (1985). The Body Electric: Electromagnetism and the Foundation of Life. William Morrow & Co. ISBN 978-0688001230.
  4. ^ "Robert O. Becker Obituary". Watertown Times. May 29, 2008.
  5. ^ Adey, WR (1986). "The energy around us". The Sciences. 26: 52–58. doi:10.1002/j.2326-1951.1986.tb02827.x.
  6. ^ Marx, JL (1981). "Electric currents may guide development". Science. 211 (4487): 1147–1149. doi:10.1126/science.7193352. PMID 7193352.
  7. ^ Weymouth, Lally (28 February 1980). "The electrical connection: Part 2". New York Magazine.
  8. ^ a b "Letter from Philip Handler, President of the National Academy of Sciences, to John Backe, President of CBS Television, regarding CBS 60 Minutes interview of Robert Becker televised on 13 February 1977" (PDF). Escanaba Daily Press (Michigan). 21 March 1977. Archived from the original on 7 March 2018.
  9. ^ a b Letter and attached article from Philip Handler, President of the National Academy of Sciences to Carll Tucker, Editor of the Saturday Review. Available at http://cassandrapublishing.net/Becker/Handler_Tucker_Letter.pdf Submitted article by Philip Handler, Alvin G. Lazen, and Normal Metzger available at http://cassandrapublishing.net/Becker/Handler_Article.pdf
  10. ^ Weiss, PA (1968). "Differential growth". Dynamics of Development: Experiments and Inferences; Selected Papers on Developmental Biology. Academic Press. pp. 190–245.
  11. ^ Shamos, MH; Lavine, LS (1964). "Physical bases for bioelectric effects in mineralized tissues". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. 35: 177–188. PMID 5889167.
  12. ^ a b Becker, RO (1960). "The electrical response of human skeletal muscle to passive stretch". Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 42-A (6): 1091–1103. doi:10.2106/00004623-196042060-00020. PMID 14448529.
  13. ^ a b Becker, RO (1960). "The bioelectric field pattern in the salamander and its simulation by an electronic analog". IRE Transactions on Medical Electronics. ME-7 (3): 202–207. doi:10.1109/IRET-ME.1960.5008048. PMID 1368848.
  14. ^ a b Becker, RO (1961). "The bioelectric factors in amphibian-limb regeneration". Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 43 (5): 643–656. doi:10.2106/00004623-196143050-00002. PMID 14448529.
  15. ^ a b Becker, RO (1961). "Search for evidence of axial current flow in peripheral nerves of salamander". Science. 134 (3472): 101–102. doi:10.1126/science.134.3472.101. PMID 17807392. S2CID 36389041.
  16. ^ a b Friedman, H; Becker, RO; Bachman, CH (1962). "Direct current potentials in hypnoanalgesia". Archives of General Psychiatry. 7 (3): 193–197. doi:10.1001/archpsyc.1962.01720030039005. PMID 13895255.
  17. ^ a b Becker, RO (1962). "Some observations indicating the possibility of longitudinal charge-carrier flow in the peripheral nerves". In Bernard, E; Kare, M (eds.). Biological Prototypes and Synthetic Systems. Plenum.
  18. ^ a b c Bassett, CA; Becker, RO (1962). "Generation of electric potentials by bone in response to mechanical stress". Science. 137 (3535): 1063–1064. doi:10.1126/science.137.3535.1063. PMID 13865637. S2CID 206564365.
  19. ^ a b c Becker, RO; Bachman, CH; Friedman, H (1962). "The direct current control system. A link between environment and organism". New York State Journal of Medicine. 62: 1169–1176. PMID 13866365.
  20. ^ a b Becker, RO; Bachman, CH; Slaughter, WH (1962). "Longitudinal direct-current gradients of spinal nerves". Nature. 196 (4855): 675–676. doi:10.1038/196675a0. PMID 13970134. S2CID 4144530.
  21. ^ a b c Friedman, H; Becker, RO; Bachman, CH (1963). "Geomagnetic parameters and psychiatric hospital admissions". Nature. 200 (4907): 626–628. doi:10.1038/200626a0. PMID 14109937. S2CID 4195628.
  22. ^ a b Becker, RO (1963). "Electron paramagnetic resonance in non-irradiated bone". Nature. 199 (4900): 1304–1305. doi:10.1038/1991304a0. PMID 14074611. S2CID 4177104.
  23. ^ a b Becker, RO (1963). "Relationship of geomagnetic environment to human biology". New York State Journal of Medicine. 63: 2215–2219. PMID 13970135.
  24. ^ a b c Becker, RO (1963). "The biological effects of magnetic fields—a survey". Medical Electronics and Biological Engineering. 1 (3): 293–302. doi:10.1007/BF02474412. S2CID 28476509.
  25. ^ a b c Becker, RO (1963). "The direct current field: a primitive control and communication system related to growth processes". In Moore, J (ed.). Proceedings of the International Congress of Zoology. pp. 179–184.
  26. ^ "William S. Middleton Award". VA BLR&D Research Awards. Retrieved 14 March 2018.
  27. ^ Becker, RO (1965). "Communications: a scientist's responsibility". Veterans Administration Research and Education Newsletter. 6: 1–4.
  28. ^ Becker, RO; Bachman, CH; Friedman, H (3 February 1962). "The research frontier". Saturday Review.
  29. ^ Becker, RO (1964). "The biophysical basis of behavior" (PDF). Hutchings Journal. 2: 1–6.
  30. ^ "Body electricity generates new medical ideas" (PDF). Medical World News. 12 April 1963.
  31. ^ a b Becker, RO (December 1972). "Electromagnetic forces and life processes" (PDF). Technology Review. Archived from the original on 15 January 2018.
  32. ^ a b Becker, RO (13 February 1977) Interview by Dan Rather for CBS 60 Minutes. Transcript available at http://www.cassandrapublishing.net/Becker/Becker_Rather_60-Minutes.pdf
  33. ^ a b Becker, RO (1967) Statement to the Subcommittee on Public Health of the U.S. House of Representatives in connection with hearings on H.R. 10790, Radiation Control for Health and Safety Act of 1967. Testimony and related correspondence available at http://www.cassandrapublishing.net/Becker/1967_Radiation_Control_Testimony.pdf
  34. ^ a b c Becker, RO (1987). "Statement before the House Subcommittee on Water and Power Resources: Congressional Hearings on the Health Effects of Powerlines, October 6, 1987" (PDF). Microwave News. 7 (5): 8–11. Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 March 2018.
  35. ^ a b c Becker RO (1990) Prepared statement presented at Electric Powerlines: Health and Public Policy Implications Oversight Hearing before the Subcommittee on General Oversight and Investigations of the Committee on Interior and Insular Affairs, House of Representatives, One Hundred First Congress, second session. 8 March 1990. US GPO: Washington, DC. Statement available at http://www.cassandrapublishing.net/Becker/Policy_Implications.pdf   
  36. ^ a b Becker RO (November 1975) Prepared testimony before the State of New York Public Service Commission in connection with Cases 26529 and 26559—Common Record Hearings on Health and Safety of 765 kV Transmission Lines. Statement available at http://www.cassandrapublishing.net/Becker/Becker_PSC.pdf   
  37. ^ a b c Becker, RO (1990). Cross Currents: The Perils of Electropollution, the Promise of Electromedicine. Jeremy P. Tarcher. ISBN 978-0874776096.
  38. ^ a b Friedman, H; Becker, RO; Bachman, CH (1965). "Psychiatric ward behavior and geophysical parameters". Nature. 205 (4976): 1050–1052. doi:10.1038/2051050a0. S2CID 30588475.
  39. ^ Becker, RO; Murray, DG (1967). "A method for producing cellular dedifferentiation by means of very small electrical currents". Transactions of the New York Academy of Sciences. 29 (5 Series II): 606–615. doi:10.1111/j.2164-0947.1967.tb02430.x. ISSN 0028-7113. PMID 5235589.
  40. ^ Becker, RO; Murray, DG (1970). "The electrical control system regulating fracture healing in amphibians". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. 73 (6): 169–198. doi:10.1097/00003086-197011000-00021. ISSN 0009-921X. PMID 5479774. S2CID 39812534.
  41. ^ Becker, RO; Spadaro, JA (1972). "Electrical stimulation of partial limb regeneration in mammals". Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine. 48 (4): 627–641. ISSN 0028-7091. PMC 1806700. PMID 4503923.
  42. ^ Becker, RO (1972). "Stimulation of Partial Limb Regeneration in Rats". Nature. 235 (5333): 109–111. doi:10.1038/235109a0. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 4550399. S2CID 4209650.
  43. ^ Becker, RO; Chapin, S; Sherry, R (1974). "Regeneration of the ventricular myocardium in amphibians". Nature. 248 (5444): 145–147. doi:10.1038/248145a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 4818918. S2CID 10043142.
  44. ^ Person, P; Libbin, RM; Shah, D; Papierman, S (1979). "Partial regeneration of the above-elbow amputated rat forelimb. I. Innate responses". Journal of Morphology. 159 (3): 427–438. doi:10.1002/jmor.1051590308. ISSN 0362-2525. PMID 430576. S2CID 36124556.
  45. ^ Cohn, Victor (26 October 1979). "Splicing Severed Spinal Cords: The Idea Excites Scientists". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2018-03-22.
  46. ^ Schiefelbein, Susan (1978). "The miracle of regeneration: can human limbs grow back?". The Saturday Review. 8 July: 8–11.
  47. ^ "Support Letters" (PDF).
  48. ^ a b c Becker, RO (1981). Mechanisms of growth control. C.C. Thomas. ISBN 9780398044695. OCLC 7179438.
  49. ^ Becker RO; Bassett CA; Bachman CH. "Bioelectrical factors controlling bone structure". In: Frost H. Bone Biodynamics. Little Brown and Co. 1964. LOC Catalog Card No. 64-22983.
  50. ^ Marino, AA; Becker, RO (1967). "Evidence for direct physical bonding between collagen fibers and apatite crystals in bone". Nature. 213 (5077): 697–698. doi:10.1038/213697a0. PMID 4291695. S2CID 4160799.
  51. ^ Becker, RO; Brown, FM (1965). "Photoelectric effects in human bone". Nature. 206 (4991): 1325–1328. doi:10.1038/2061325a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 5839595. S2CID 5408685.
  52. ^ Fuller, RG; Marino, AA; Becker, RO (1976). "Photoconductivity in bone and tendon". Biophysical Journal. 16 (7): 845–846. doi:10.1016/S0006-3495(76)85733-5. ISSN 0006-3495. PMC 1334905. PMID 938723.
  53. ^ Becker, RO; Spadaro, JA; Berg, EW (1968). "Trace elements of human bone". Journal of Bone and Joint Surgery. 50-A (2): 326–334. doi:10.2106/00004623-196850020-00011. PMID 5642821.
  54. ^ Marino, AA; Becker, RO; Bachman, CH (1967). "Dielectric determination of bound water of bone". Physics in Medicine and Biology. 12 (3): 367–378. doi:10.1088/0031-9155/12/3/309. PMID 6036199.
  55. ^ Marino, AA; Becker, RO (1970). "Piezoelectric effect and growth control in bone". Nature. 228 (5270): 473–474. doi:10.1038/228473a0. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 5482504. S2CID 4224561.
  56. ^ Marino, AA; Soderholm, SC; Becker, RO (1971). "Origin of the piezoelectric effect in bone". Calcified Tissue Research. 8 (2): 177–180. doi:10.1007/BF02010135. PMID 5145213. S2CID 21761277.
  57. ^ Becker, RO (1974). "The basic biological data transmission and control system influenced by electrical forces". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 238: 236–241. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1974.tb26793.x. ISSN 0077-8923. PMID 4531264. S2CID 10085896.
  58. ^ McLean, FC; Urist, MR (1968). Bone--Fundamentals of the Physiology of Skeletal Tissue (3rd ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226560731. OCLC 222330250.
  59. ^ Becker, RO (1972). "Augmentation of regenerative healing in man. A possible alternative to prosthetic implantation". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research. 83: 255–262. doi:10.1097/00003086-197203000-00045. PMID 5014820.
  60. ^ Bassett, CA; Becker, RO; Brighton, CT; Lavine, L; Rowley, BA (1974). "Panel discussion: To what extent can electrical stimulation be used in the treatment of human disorders?". Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 238: 586–593. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.1974.tb26824.x. ISSN 0077-8923. PMID 4548340. S2CID 28182491.
  61. ^ Becker, RO (1975). "The current status of electrically stimulated bone growth". Orthopedic Nurses' Association Journal. 2 (2): 35–46. PMID 1037981.
  62. ^ Berger, TJ; Spadaro, JA; Chapin, SE; Becker, RO (1976). "Electrically generated silver ions: quantitative effects on bacterial and mammalian cells". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 9 (2): 357–358. doi:10.1128/AAC.9.2.357. ISSN 0066-4804. PMC 429529. PMID 944551.
  63. ^ Spadaro, JA; Berger, TJ; Barranco, S. D.; Chapin, SE; Becker, RO (1974). "Antibacterial effects of silver electrodes with weak direct current". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 6 (5): 637–642. doi:10.1128/AAC.6.5.637. ISSN 0066-4804. PMC 444706. PMID 15825319.
  64. ^ Becker, RO; Spadaro, JA (1979). "Experience with low current silver electrode treatment of nonunion". In Brighton, C; Black, J; Pollack, S (eds.). Electrical Properties of Bone and Cartilage: Experimental Effects and Clinical Applications. Grune & Stratton. pp. 631–638.
  65. ^ Becker, RO; Spadaro, JA; Marino, AA (1977). "Clinical experiences with low intensity direct current stimulation of bone growth". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (124): 75–83. ISSN 0009-921X. PMID 304404.
  66. ^ Webster, DA; Spadaro, JA; Becker, RO; Kramer, S (1981). "Silver anode treatment of chronic osteomyelitis". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (161): 105–114. ISSN 0009-921X. PMID 6975686.
  67. ^ Becker, RO (1983). "Electrical treatment of osteomyelitis". In Evarts, C (ed.). Surgery of the Musculoskeletal System, vol. 10. Churchill Livingstone. pp. 197–208. ISBN 978-0443085161.
  68. ^ Becker, RO (1979). "The significance of electrically stimulated osteogenesis: more questions than answers". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (141): 266–274. ISSN 0009-921X. PMID 314373.
  69. ^ Becker, RO; Reichmanis, M; Marino, AA; Spadaro, JA (1976). "Electrophysiological correlates of acupuncture points and meridians". Psychoenergetic Systems. 1: 105–112.
  70. ^ Reichmanis, M; Marino, AA; Becker, RO (1975). "Electrical correlates of acupuncture points". IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 22 (6): 533–535. doi:10.1109/tbme.1975.324477. ISSN 0018-9294. PMID 1184029. S2CID 27966221.
  71. ^ Reichmanis, M; Marino, AA; Becker, RO (1976). "D.C. skin conductance variation at acupuncture loci". The American Journal of Chinese Medicine. 04 (1): 69–72. doi:10.1142/s0192415x7600010x. PMID 1266803.
  72. ^ Reichmanis, M; Marino, AA; Becker, RO (1977). "Laplace plane analysis of transient impedance between acupuncture points Li-4 and Li-12". IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 24 (4): 402–405. doi:10.1109/TBME.1977.326154. ISSN 0018-9294. PMID 881215. S2CID 26533321.
  73. ^ Reichmanis, M; Marino, AA; Becker, RO (1977). "Laplace plane analysis of impedance between acupuncture points H-3 and H-4". Comparative Medicine East and West. 5 (3–4): 289–295. doi:10.1142/s0147291777000416. ISSN 0147-2917. PMID 610979.
  74. ^ Reichmanis, M; Marino, AA; Becker, RO (1979). "Laplace plane analysis of impedance on the H meridian". The American Journal of Chinese Medicine. 7 (2): 188–193. doi:10.1142/s0192415x79000167. ISSN 0192-415X. PMID 484540.
  75. ^ Reichmanis, M; Becker, RO (1978). "Physiological effects of stimulation at acupuncture loci: a review". The American Journal of Chinese Medicine. 6 (1): 67–73. doi:10.1142/s0147291778000101. PMID 710080.
  76. ^ Reichmanis, M; Marino, AA; Becker, RO (1978). "Laplace plane analysis of skin impedance: a preliminary investigation". Journal of the Electrochemical Society. 125 (11): 1765–1768. doi:10.1149/1.2131290. ISSN 0013-4651.
  77. ^ Ahn, AC; Colbert, AP; Anderson, BJ; Martinsen, ØG; Hammerschlag, R; Cina, S; Wayne, PM; Langevin, HM (2008). "Electrical properties of acupuncture points and meridians: A systematic review". Bioelectromagnetics. 29 (4): 245–256. doi:10.1002/bem.20403. ISSN 1521-186X. PMID 18240287. S2CID 7001749.
  78. ^ Colbert, AP; Spaulding, KP; Ahn, AC; Cutro, JA (2011). "Clinical utility of electrodermal activity at acupuncture points: a narrative review". Acupuncture in Medicine: Journal of the British Medical Acupuncture Society. 29 (4): 270–275. doi:10.1136/acupmed-2011-010021. ISSN 1759-9873. PMID 22002962. S2CID 25658746.
  79. ^ Becker, RO; Bachman, CH (1961). "The direct current field: a new data transmission and control system in living organisms". Digest of the International Conference of Medical Electronics. p. 138.
  80. ^ Friedman, H; Becker, RO; Bachman, CH (1967). "Effect of magnetic fields on reaction time performance". Nature. 213 (5079): 949–950. doi:10.1038/213949a0. ISSN 0028-0836. PMID 6030075. S2CID 4191016.
  81. ^ Becker, RO (1968). "The possible hazards of human exposure to magnetic fields. Report prepared in connection with Joint Technical Advisory Committee report". Spectrum Engineering: The Key to Progress; a Report on Technical Policies and Procedures for Increased Radio Spectrum Utilization. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: date and year (link)
  82. ^ Marino, AA; Becker, RO; Ullrich, B (1976). "The effect of continuous exposure to low frequency electric fields on three generations of mice: A pilot study". Experientia. 32 (5): 565–566. doi:10.1007/bf01990163. ISSN 0014-4754. PMID 1278293. S2CID 41086402.
  83. ^ Marino, AA; Reichmanis, M; Becker, RO; Ullrich, Betsy; Cullen, JM (1980). "Power frequency electric field induces biological changes in successive generations of mice". Experientia. 36 (3): 309–311. doi:10.1007/bf01952295. ISSN 0014-4754. S2CID 2222850.
  84. ^ Marino, AA; Cullen, JM; Reichmanis, M; Becker, RO (1979). "Power frequency electric fields and biological stress: a cause-and-effect relationship". Biological Effects of Extremely Low Frequency Electromagnetic Fields: Proceedings of the 18th Annual Hanford Life Sciences Symposium. Technical Information Center, U.S. Department of Energy.
  85. ^ Marino, AA; Cullen, JM; Reichmanis, M; Becker, RO (1979). "Fracture healing in rats exposed to extremely low-frequency electric fields". Clinical Orthopaedics and Related Research (145): 239–244. ISSN 0009-921X. PMID 317035.
  86. ^ Marino, AA; Berger, TJ; Austin, BP; Becker, RO; Hart, FX (1977). "In vivo bioelectrochemical changes associated with exposure to extremely low frequency electric fields". Physiological Chemistry and Physics. 9 (4–5): 433–441. ISSN 0031-9325. PMID 613333.
  87. ^ Mitchell, JT; Marino, AA; Berger, TJ; Becker, RO (1978). "Effect of electrostatic fields on the chromosomes of Ehrlich ascites tumor cells exposed in vivo". Physiological Chemistry and Physics. 10 (1): 79–85. ISSN 0031-9325. PMID 569338.
  88. ^ Becker, RO (1979) "Brain pollution". Psychology Today. February:124. Article available at http://www.cassandrapublishing.net/Becker/Brain_Pollution.pdf
  89. ^ a b Becker, RO; Marino, AA (1978). "Electromagnetic pollution". The Sciences. 18: 14–15. doi:10.1002/j.2326-1951.1978.tb01612.x. ISSN 2326-1951.
  90. ^ Marino, AA; Becker, RO (1978). "High-voltage lines: hazard at a distance". Environment. 20 (9): 7–14. doi:10.1080/00139157.1978.9928707.
  91. ^ Marino, AA; Ray, J (1986) The Electric Wilderness. San Francisco Press. ISBN:978-0911302554. Cassandra (2011) ISBN: 978-0981854922 .
  92. ^ Becker, RO (1982). "Electrical control systems and regenerative growth". Journal of Bioelectricity. 1 (2): 239–264. doi:10.3109/15368378209040339.
  93. ^ Becker, RO (1983). "Electromagnetic controls over biological growth processes". Journal of Bioelectricity. 3 (1–2): 105–118. doi:10.1080/15368378409035962.
  94. ^ Becker, RO (1985). "A theory of the interaction between DC and ELF electromagnetic fields and living organisms". Journal of Bioelectricity. 4: 133–140. doi:10.3109/15368378509040367.
  95. ^ a b Becker, RO; Marino, AA (1982) Electromagnetism and Life. State University of New York Press. ISBN: 978-0873955607. Cassandra (2010) ISBN: 978-0981854908.
  96. ^ Becker, RO (1983). "Orthopaedics and the coming scientific revolution". Bulletin of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons: 19–20.
  97. ^ Becker, RO. Processes and products involving cell modification. United States Patent No. 4,528,265, Filed May 11, 1982.  
  98. ^ Becker, RO; Flick, AB; Becker, AJ. Iontopheretic system for stimulation of tissue healing and regeneration. United States Patent No. 5,814,094, Filed March 28, 1996.
  99. ^ Deitch, EA; Marino, AA; Gillespie, TE; Albright, JA (1983). "Silver-nylon: a new antimicrobial agent". Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 23 (3): 356–359. doi:10.1128/AAC.23.3.356. ISSN 0066-4804. PMC 184651. PMID 6847168.
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