Civil war timeline edit
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Civil War historic timeline - 1992 to 2006
Several hundred people demonstrate in Algiers in answer to a call from the FFS and its president Hocine Aït-Ahmed to save democracy and mobilise voters for the second round. 11 January 1992: President Chadli announces his resignation. It emerges that Parliament was dissolved on 4 January. The Constitutional Council (CC) refers to a presidential decree, dated 4 January, on dissolution of the national assembly. Following calls for him to act as the interim president, the CC chair replies that it the constitution does not allow him to take such a responsibility.
The Security Council (HCS), comprising six people (including three generals, in particular general Nezzar) "notes" that it is impossible to continue the election.
The Committee of State (HCE) is set up, with five members: Mohamed Boudiaf, returning from exile in Morocco; general Nezzar, minister of defence; Ali Haroun, minister of human rights; Ali Kafi, chairman of the Society of Former Mujahidins (AAM); Tidjani Haddam, rector of the Paris mosque. The HCE announces that it will take over the powers of the president until the end of the president term in December 1993.
A law banning public gatherings near mosques is passed. On four Fridays in succession the security forces prevent the faithful from praying outside. Dozens of people are killed, hundreds injured and thousands arrested.
Arrest of Abdelkader Hachani, FIS third in command. Ali Haroun indicates that 5,000 people have been arrested. The FIS says 14,000.
State of emergency proclaimed.
The authorities announce the opening of seven detention centres in the south.
The administrative court of Algiers dissolves the FIS.
The government dissolves the municipal assemblies, in which the FIS held the majority. Municipalities will be governed by Local Executive Delegations (DEC), named by the minister of the interior, general Larbi Belkheir. They subsequently gained a reputation for widespread corruption.
President Mohamed Boudiaf assassinated by one of his bodyguards during a trip to Annaba.
Abassi Madani and Ali Benhadj, the two leaders of the FIS, sentenced to 12 years in prison.
First blind attack, as a bomb explodes at Algiers airport killing nine people and injuring 123.
At the instigation of general Nezzar, the Centre for the Conduct and Coordination of Anti-Subversive Action (CCC/ALAS) is set up, with general Mohamed Lamari at its head. It brings together under a single command the army's various "special forces" responsible for combating terrorism.
Issue of the "anti-terrorist" decree, n° 92-03, on the fight against subversion and terrorism.
Curfew introduced in the Algiers area.
Military tribunal tries 79 soldiers, sentencing 20 to death.
State of emergency prolonged for an unspecified period.
Amnesty International publishes a report expressing concern at the serious deterioration in civil rights and increasingly widespread torture following the introduction of the state of emergency.
The National Human Rights Observatory (ONDH) responds that it has registered "10 probable cases" of torture in Algeria.
Visit by the French minister for the economy and finance, confirming economic aid and trade subsidies for Algeria (value 5 billion francs for 1993).
Emergency court starts trial of the suspects in the attack on Algiers airport. In a travesty of justice, seven of them are sentenced to death (executed on 31 August 1993).
An "emergency text" drawn up by the government bans people from wearing Islamic dress in companies and administrative bodies.
The writer and journalist Tahar Djaout suffers an attack subsequently attributed to the Islamists. He dies of his injuries on 2 June. Many other similar killings occurred in the following months, targeting in particular intellectuals and public figures having support the suspension of the electoral process.
The curfew is extended to the M’sila, Chlef and Djelfa areas.
Signature of several oil and gas contracts, with Portugal, for the supply of gas, and with French, Japanese and US firms for the supply of equipment and construction of facilities.
General Liamine Zéroual is appointed minister of defence, replacing general Nezzar, who remains a member of the HCE. General Lamari is appointed army chief of staff.
Assassination of Kasdi Merbah, the former head of military security and leader of a political party. He had just appealed to the insurgents and political leaders to negotiate, while suggesting the military withdraw from politics. The Islamists were blamed for his murder, but there is every reason to suppose that, as a key player in reconciliation, he was liquidated by one of the clans in power.
A "national commission for dialogue" was set up to prepare the "national conference on reconciliation", following which a successor to the HCE was due to be chosen.
Creation of the executive body of the FIS abroad, chaired by Rabah Kébir.
Algeria reopened talks with the International Monetary Fund (IMF) to obtain a stand-by loan of $4bn, spread over three years.
Three officials from the French consul kidnapped by a supposedly Islamist group and released four days later. At the same time their kidnappers publish a communiqué urging foreigners to leave the country before 1 December. Many accounts, including by the hostages themselves, suggest the operation was mounted by the Intelligence and Security Department (DRS) to ensure France would continue supporting the regime.
98 Islamists arrested in France, in a huge operation codenamed "Chrysanthème", organised by the minister of the interior Charles Pasqua. Many of them were deported to Burkina-Faso, despite there being no serious charges against them.
Visit by an IMF delegation to Algeria, recommending 50% devaluation of the dinar, privatisation of the public sector, reduction of the budget deficit and deregulation of foreign trade.
Most of the political parties boycott the national conference. The HCE is dissolved and on the 30th Zéroual is appointed president of the republic for three years.
Human Rights Watch publishes a report on Algeria's worsening human rights record and deplores France's tacit approval of the excessive repression. HRW calls on Algeria's creditors to make their assistance conditional on a return to democracy and the end of human rights violations.
The IMF director-general, Mr Camdessus, visits Algiers to discuss rescheduling of the foreign debt.
Algeria's finance minister visits France to negotiate rescheduling.
Almost 1,000 prisoners escape from Tazoult prison (formerly Lambèse) under mysterious circumstances. Over the next three months security forces step up arrests of civilians all over the country, particularly around Algiers. Several thousand people are killed or "disappeared". Eye-witness accounts suggest the operation was masterminded by the DRS to reinforce and infiltrate the ranks of the insurgents.
A communiqué posted by the Islamic Action Group (GIA) on the walls of the town of Berrouaghia imposes a curfew after 21.00. In fact it is a fake, a means of concealing a vast campaign of summary arrests and executions. The following day the military based in Berrouaghia arrest more than 170 civilians.
The army chief of staff, general Lamari, is given authority to sign on behalf of the head of state "all official documents and rulings, including decrees". Two days later the minister of the interior, colonel Salim Sadi, announces that reservists may be mobilised "to assist security forces".
General Mohamed Betchine, a former head of the intelligence service, is appointed as advisor to the head of state.
Signature with the Paris Club of an agreement on rescheduling of foreign debt (roughly $26bn). The dinar is devalued by 40%. France encourages its G7 partners, the European Union and the United States to continue economic support for Algeria.
Start of one of the first militia groups in the village of Bouderbala (Bouira district), led by a shopkeeper belonging to the local nomenklatura, one Ammi Mekhfi Zidane, aged 60. The militia, commanded by the army, attracts substantial media attention thanks to the propaganda department.
The interior minister sends a confidential decree on the "treatment of security information" to media directors.
A bomb explodes near Mustapha hospital in Algiers, just as a march, organised by the RCD to mark the second anniversary of the death of Boudiaf, is passing. It kills three civilians. An RCD party leader accuses the "political and financial mafia" of trying to assassinate him.
Start of the Islamic Salvation Army (AIS)
France announces plans to earmark a credit of Fr6bn for Algeria in 1994.
Western chancelleries cite the figure of 30,000 deaths since the coup d’état on 11 January 1992.
The press announces that 120 schools have so far been burned down in the locality of Chlef.
The [Berber] singer Matoub Lounès is kidnapped by an armed group near Taourirt Moussa, 35 kilometres from the town of Tizi-Ouzou. The fraction of the Berber Cultural Movement close to the RCD threatens to start an all-out war against the Islamists, unless Lounès is released by 28 September. The ultimatum is cancelled a few days later and Lounès is released. Some Berber militants subsequently concluded it was all part of a plan invented by the authorities assisted by local activists.
After releasing the two leaders of the FIS, held under house arrest, president Zéroual announces the start of discussions with them.
Lamari is promoted to major-general. Zéroual announces the failure of discussions with opposition parties, announcing plans for a presidential election "before the end of 1995".
A bomb explodes at Sidi-Ali cemetery (Mostaganem) during a ceremony in memory of those who gave their lives in the war of national liberation. It kills five young scouts and injures 17 others. Oddly the television cameras were set up well before the explosion, enabling them to broadcast the carnage almost live.
The BBC broadcasts a programme on the dramatic situation in Algeria produced by its reporter Phil Reeds. It denounces the torture and summary executions carried out by government agents.
Police slaughter more than 50 inmates of Berrouaghia prison. According to subsequent accounts, this was a quick way of liquidating imprisoned Islamists.
A GIA commando hijacks an Air France Airbus at Algiers airport, executing three hostages. The plane lands at Marignane airport, outside Marseille, then is stormed by a crack police unit (GIGN), killing the hijackers and releasing the passengers. This was yet another DRS operation to put pressure on Paris.
Meeting in Rome the main opposition leaders (FLN, FFS, FIS, MDA, PT, etc.) sign a common platform for a "peaceful political solution to the crisis".
In its annual report the National Human Rights Observatory notes 327 violations committed by members of the security forces.
A car bomb explodes outside the main police station in Algiers killing 42 and injuring dozens of other people.
The special forces are disbanded, but the provisions of decree n° 92-03 of 30 September 1992 (on the fight against subversion and terrorism) are added to the penal code.
Police slaughter more than 100 inmates of Serkadji prison, apparently a repeat of the Berrouaghia prison killings.
Agreement reached with Italy on rescheduling of part of public foreign debt.
Decision to set up four "exclusion zones" in the south of Algeria, to protect gas and oil fields.
French intellectuals launch an appeal for "peace and democracy in Algeria", demanding that the government stop "all military assistance to the [Algiers] authorities".
Agreement with the banks on rescheduling of more than $3bn in trade debt.
Lembarek Boumaârafi, suspected of assassinating president Boudiaf, is sentenced to death by the emergency court of Algiers. Boudiaf's widow refuses to attend the trial, referring to it as a "masquerade". The sentence is not carried out.
The government bans the human rights open day organised by the parties that signed the National Contract in Rome. The event would have been held in an Algiers cinema, L’Algéria.
Sheikh Abdelbaki Sahraoui, aged 85, a founding member of the FIS, is murdered in his mosque, on Rue Myrha, in the 18th district of Paris.
Paris Club reschedules Algerian debt amounting to about $7.5bn, covering payments up to May 1998.
Bomb attack on Saint-Michel Metro station in Paris, killing eight and injuring 150. It marks the start of a series of attacks blamed on the GIA. Several men are arrested and given long prison sentences but the masterminds are never identified. Many clues suggest the DRS is in some way implicated in the attacks.
The FFS and FIS report 70,000 deaths since 1992.
Public announcement that several FIS leaders, including Mohamed Saïd and Abderrezak Redjam, have been killed by the GIA.
Presidential election: Liamine Zéroual is elected, with 61% of the vote. The signatories of the Rome agreement boycott the election. 350,000 soldiers and militia are deployed all over the country to ensure an "orderly" presidential election.
Confirmation of the signature of a $3bn contract with British Petroleum lasting 30 years for the exploitation of seven gas wells at Aïn-Salah.
Abdelhamid Mehri sacked from his job as FLN general secretary. The party is drawn into the ruling military clique.
Signature of a contract with the US firm Arco for the sharing out of the Rhourd El-Baguel oilfield.
Curfew in force since December 1992 lifted.
A GIA commando kidnaps seven French monks kidnapped from the monastery at Tibhirine (announcing their death on 23 May; their bodies are found a week later). Subsequent accounts suggest that the operation was masterminded by the DRS.
Agreements on rescheduling of public debt with France ($1.5bn) and Italy ($1.7bn), and of $2.2bn private debt with the London Club.
The bishop of Oran, Monseigneur Pierre Claverie, and his driver are killed by a bomb at his residence. Claverie was not convinced by the official account of the murder of the Tibhirine monks put about in France and Algeria, and was probably assassinated by the DRS to prevent him from voicing his doubts.
Official opening of a gas pipeline to Spain.
New constitution approved by referendum granting far-reaching powers to the president.
Two weeklies, La Nation and El Hourrya, well known for their courageous stance in favour of genuine peace and democracy, are temporarily closed on the strength of an administrative detail (unpaid debts).
The Provisional National Council (CNT) passes a law organising and setting guidelines for the militia (referred to a Legitimate Defence Groups), the setting up of which had been encouraged by the army in 1994.
Assassination of Abdelhak Benhammouda, general secretary of the General Union of Algerian Workers (UGTA). He was set to take the head the National Democratic Rally (RND), a new party supporting president Zeroual. The man suspected of murdering Rachid Medjahed had been tortured and murdered at police premises. The death of Benhammouda has never been explained.
Amnesty International condemns the daily killing of civilians and asked for detailed, transparent investigations to be carried out to ensure those responsible for the atrocities were brought to justice.
Start of R&D, the party of president Zéroual created to prevent the FLN provisionally rallying the democratic camp.
In the general election the RND takes the majority (155 seats), followed by Hamas (69 seats). Many opposition parties complained of massive fraud.
Abdelkader Hachani, the FIS number three, in custody since January 1992, is tried on a charge of inciting disobedience to the military; sentenced to five years in prison, he is released immediately.
All through the summer dozens of killings of civilians occur in the Algiers area. They are blamed on Islamist terror groups.
Massacre in Raïs, in the Algiers area – in a heavily militarised zone – killing 200 to 400 people.
Massacre in Béni-Messous, in the inner suburbs of Algiers, claiming almost 150 dead.
Massacre in Bentalha, with more than 400 dead. Army forces stationed around the locality did not intervene. On the contrary it drove fleeing inhabitants back towards the killing.
After an interview with Algeria's foreign minister, the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights, Mary Robinson, said she was very concerned about the deterioration in human rights in Algeria.
Unilateral truce decided by AIS comes into force. Other armed troops joined the truce shortly afterwards.
The World Organisation Against Torture appealed to the Office of the UN High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR) to convene an extraordinary session to study the dramatic human rights situation in Algeria.
Four non-governmental organisations (Human Rights Watch, Amnesty International, International League of Human Rights, and Reporters sans Frontières) called for an international enquiry to be set up to investigate the massacres of civilians in Algeria and asked the OHCHR to convene an extraordinary session to examine the situation in Algeria.
Local elections, marked by massive abstention (60%) and widespread fraud. The RND won the majority of local council seats.
Massacres in three villages in the Relizane area (Kherarba, Ouled Sahnine and Ouled Tayeb): 386 civilians killed.
More than 150 civilians massacred in three villages (Meknessa, Souk El-Had and Had Chekala) near Rélizane, according to sources in hospitals. According to some sources the massacres in the Rélizane area caused almost 1,000 deaths.
The US State Department said it would be in favour of an international commission of enquiry on the massacres in Algeria. The United Kingdom endorsed the UK request. The UN secretary-general said he was very concerned about the deteriorating situation in Algeria.
Massacre in the village of Sidi-Hamed (near Algiers): more than 100 civilians killed.
The EU troika, made up of three secretaries of state from member states, visited Algeria following a series of massacres but made no firm condemnation.
Speaking in parliament the prime minister Ahmed Ouyahia provided figures on paramilitary forces: almost 5,000 militia (self-defence groups) had been set up since 1993, with 2,313 brigades of communal guards, since 1994, making a total of 200,000 men under arms.
Five-day visit by a delegation of nine European MPs led by André Soulier (France), who reported that the massacres were being committed by the GIA.
Newspaper censorship committees disbanded.
G8 foreign ministers meeting in London ask the Algerian government to authorise a visit by a UN mission.
Assassination of Lounès Matoub, a very popular singer. For weeks there was rioting in Kabylia to protester against the killing. Demonstrators chanted "government killers" and demanded to a halt to the law on Arabisation. Officially the GIA was blamed for the killing, but the true circumstances were never explained. Two men arrested in 1999 are still in custody six years later.
Following arbitrary arrests by the security forces the families of the disappeared demonstrated outside the OHCHR headquarters in Geneva. Several demonstrations followed in Algeria, some of which were brutally put down.
UN delegation, comprising a panel of five personalities, carries out a two-week mission of information. The report only contained very mild criticism of security forces' responsibility in the violence.
President Zéroual announces his resignation. A presidential election will be held early, in February 1999, but subsequently postponed till April.
US-Algerian military manoeuvres in the Mediterranean.
In a report to parliament prime minister Ouyahia confirms that 1,000 public companies have been closed and 380,000 people made redundant.
Several dailies ordered to pay their printing debts within 48 hours or risk closure. Seven newspapers stop appearing for three weeks.
General Mohamed Betchine, advisor to president Zéroual, forced to resign.
The minister of trade and industry reports that 14 million Algerians (out of a total of 30 million) are living below the poverty line and 7 million are illiterate. Unemployment stands at 29%.
Abdelaziz Bouteflika, proposed by the military hierarchy, elected president. The six other candidates withdrew the day before the poll in protest at the organised fraud. On taking office Bouteflika announced that since 1992 the Algerian tragedy had caused 100,000 deaths and almost 10,000 disappearances.
Signature of a contract between In Salah Gaz (Sonatrach and BP joint venture) and Edison (Italy) for the supply, from 2003, of 4bn cubic metres of gas a year, over a 15-year period.
The AIS announces that it will lay down its arms and surrender to the state. Since October 1997 the AIS had been respecting a truce, later joined by other armed groups.
French parliament passes a law officially recognising the Algerian war.
In an interview on RFI, Bouteflika rules out any immediate end to the state of emergency.
Former presidential candidate A. Taleb Ibrahimi starts a new party called Wafa, but it was never authorised.
To mark the 37th anniversary of Algeria's independence Bouteflika ordered the release of various prisoners sentenced for supporting terrorism. The number released is disputed: some officials say 5,000, Bouteflika says he ordered 2,400 people to be released, the FIS says that only 300 were released. In the vast majority of cases they had served almost all of their sentence.
In an interview with Europe 1 [radio] Bouteflika says: "I am applying the army's policy".
The "civil concord" law is published, pardoning or reducing the punishment for members of armed groups who surrender, provided they are not guilty of murder or rape. The law is to be approved by referendum, setting 13 January 2000 as the deadline for giving oneself up.
A plebiscite approves Bouteflika's action, with 99% voting "yes" in a referendum on the civil concord. The question before electors is: "Do you agree with the overall approach taken by the President of the Republic to achieve peace and civil concord?"
Abdelkader Hachani, the leader of the FIS, is murdered at the dentists'. He took over at the head of the party after its two leaders, Abassi Madani and Ali Benhadj, were imprisoned in June 1991 and prepared the party to run in the general election of December 1991. Arrested at the end of January 1992 he spent more than five years in custody before being tried and sentenced to five years in prison. He was seen as a man of dialogue, who supported all genuine attempts to restore peace and bring about national reconciliation. The man assumed to be his murderer, a GIA member, was brought to justice but the people behind the killing were never identified. Many think the government was implicated.
Presidential announcement of an "amnesty" for AIS members (the list having been drawn up long before). The AIS confirmed it had disbanded itself, with 1,565 people giving themselves up to the authorities under the provisions of the civil concord law, due to expire on 13 January. A probation committee reviews each case. No official figures were published and there is no way of establishing the details of the procedure or checking that it actually happened.
Algerian foreign minister visits Paris to consolidate cooperation and encourage French business to invest.
Changes in the army: General Fodhil Chérif, who led the fight against terrorism at the head of the Counter-insurgency Command Centre (CCLAS), is appointed commander of the first military region. The heads of the 3rd, 5th and 6th military regions also change. General Bousteila becomes the head of the police (gendarmerie).
The regime authorises four human rights organisations (Amnesty International, Human Rights Watch, FIDH and Reporters Sans Frontières) to visit Algeria. They come during the first half of the year, one by one, denouncing in their respective reports continuing serious human rights violations and the impunity enjoyed by the culprits, including "repentant" Islamists guilty of murder.
More than 1,000 civilians killed since the beginning of the year.
French warships visit Algiers. The vice-admiral commanding France's Mediterranean fleet discusses future military cooperation between the two countries.
Ministry of Higher Education issues circular reinstating French in Arabised subjects, as well as French-language broadcasts on television.
State visit to France by Bouteflika, with a reception in parliament. Agreement to reschedule debt amounting to Fr400m. Meeting with French business leaders. Before leaving, Bouteflika says he is "going home empty-handed, but confident". During his visit the families of some of the "disappeared" demonstrated outside parliament.
joint US and Algerian military manoeuvres in the Mediterranean.
In an interview in Le Matin the UGTA general secretary denounces the "alarming deterioration in the economic and social situation". Unemployment exceeds 30%. Protest movements emerge in various parts of the country, with rioting, due to unfair allocation of housing or a total freeze of the allocation process.
Visit by US assistant secretary of state for near-eastern affairs.
Prime minister Benbitour resigns over disagreement on privatisations.
Change of government approved by parliament. Ali Benflis becomes prime minister, with Ahmed Ouyahia minister of justice, and Abdelaziz Belkhadem in charge of foreign affairs.
Publication in France of the book by Nesroulah Yous, Qui a tué à Bentalha? (La Découverte), prompting an outcry in the Algerian press.
ANP Chief of staff Mohamed Lamari pays a working visit to the headquarters of the American Forces Command in Europe. This represents the prelude to a cooperation which will intensify in the framework of "the fight against terrorism" in the Sahel region (called Pan-Sahel initiative).
Publication in France of the book by former second-lieutenant Habib Souaïdia, La sale guerre (The Dirty War) (La Découverte), which will set off a general outcry against the author on behalf of the Algerian press and the authorities.
Dissolution by decree of the ONDH (National Human Rights Observatory), an agency set up by the government after the Putsch. Its role was essentially to minimize violations committed by State institutions.
A young man is killed by gendarmes in Kabylia: the region flares up and repression is brutal, with more than one hundred and fifty killed during the following weeks. Kabylia settles into a state of rebellion that lasted a few years.
Three complaints are lodged with the Public Prosecutor in Paris against General Khaled Nezzar, on visit in Paris. On the same day, he was "exfiltrated" to Algiers, with the help of the French authorities.
The government decides to suspend the organisation of marches in Algiers, "until further notice".
Official creation of the National Consultative Commission for the Promotion and Protection of Human Rights, successor to the ONDH. Like the latter, this Commission is "a consultative surveillance, early alert and evaluation body in the human rights field".
Due to deficient infrastructures, more than nine hundred persons die in disastrous floods in the Bab-el-Oued area of Algiers.
On the occasion of the 10th anniversary of the Putsch, Algeria-Watch, with the cooperation of Salah-Eddine Sidhoum, published a dossier on human rights violations with a list of 3,700 disappeared and 1,100 summarily executed persons, as well as the chronology of the massacres.
First round of WTO negotiations in Geneva.
Algerian authorities alleged an "incident" in Kabylia with a police escort for a France 2 television team, preventing foreign journalists to go to Kabylia as from the following day. According to the Ministry of Communication, the escort "was set upon by demonstrators" in the Tizi-Ouzou region. General elections need to be held in camera in this region in turmoil since more than a year.
General elections marked by fraud and abstentions: the FLN – falling once more into the lap of the Generals' regime – obtains the absolute majority in the Assembly.
Court hearings in Paris in the action for libel brought by General Khaled Nezzar against second-lieutenant Habib Souaïdia. General Nezzar lost the case.
In Paris, opening of the "Year of Algeria" in France, official Franco-Algerian event during which cultural events are organized throughout France.
French President Jacques Chirac pays an official visit to Algeria. The "Algiers Declaration" is signed by the two Algerian and French Heads of State. This declaration of intent aims at strengthening the relations between the two countries in all fields and is to lead to the signature of a "Treaty of Friendship" in 2005.
Thirty-one European tourists (fifteen Germans, ten Austrians, four Swiss, one Dutch and one Swede) are kidnapped by an armed group in Southern Algeria.
discharge of Head of Government, Ali Benflis. Ahmed Ouyahia is appointed to this post that he had occupied five years earlier. Benflis had been re-elected on March 19th at the head of the FLN with extensive prerogatives further emancipating him from Bouteflika.
A first group of seventeen European abducted tourists is set free.
Earthquake in the Boumerdès region (fifty-odd kilometres from the capital city) causes more than 2,000 dead and as many missing persons.
At the end of their term, release of Abassi Madani and Ali Benhadj, the two main Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) leaders, in prison since June 1991. They are banned from any political activity. Authorities expel foreign correspondents come to cover the event.
Revelation in the Algerian press (e.g. Le Matin) of corruption of staggering proportions. President Bouteflika and several Ministers of his government are mentioned by name, with details of the financial and real estate despoliations for which they are to blame.
Establishment by the President of an "ad hoc mechanism" addressing the issue of the "disappeared". Its mandate is to last eighteen months. It is not a board of enquiry, but rather a "management and interface centre" between public authorities and families of missing persons.
The fifteen abducted tourists who were still in the hands of their kidnappers have been freed. One of the victims died during detention.
Fierce attack on private press, summoned to pay its debts to the State printing office within three days; various complaints for libel against the Head of State; summons of journalists and officials. Part of the private press decides not to appear on 22 September.
First preparations for dialogue between government and the aârouchs (tribe and family representatives in Kabylia). The latter insist upon the implementation of the El-Kseur platform which was developed at the time of the riots from April 2001 on.
Doctor Salah-Eddine Sidhoum, surgeon and human rights advocate, living underground since 1994 after an assassination attempt and a sentence in absentia of twenty years imprisonment for "supporting terrorism", decides to appear before justice. He starts a complete hunger strike. An international campaign requests his unconditional release.
Salah-Eddine Sidhoum is tried and found not guilty.
Remains found in a common grave have been identified as those of a man who was abducted and missing in Relizane.
Justified by the presence of terrorists in the region, possibly confirmed by the hostage-taking of European tourists a few month beforehand, the Americans implement the so-called "Pan-Sahel" initiative while restructuring their military bases in the world. Around twelve military bases are planned in the region: in Senegal, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Chad, Ghana, Morocco, Tunisia and Algeria.
M. Abderrahmane El-Mehdi Mosbah lodged a complaint against major general Larbi Belkheir with the public prosecutor of Paris, for acts of torture.
Action against persons unknown lodged with the high court of Paris by the Lebreton family and father Armand Veilleux, for the abduction and assassination of seven French monks in Tibhirine, Algeria, in 1996. Since then, Algerian officials (in particular President Bouteflika) reluctantly acknowledged that the assassination of the monks could be the doings of the DRS.
Unofficial launch of the campaign for the Presidential elections due April 8th.
Among the nine candidates for the Presidential elections, six have been accepted by the Constitutional Council: Abdelaziz Bouteflika, Ali Benflis (FLN secretary general), Abdellah Saâd Djaballah (secretary general of the El-Islah party), Louisa Hanoune (spokeswoman for the Workers' party), Saïd Sadi (secretary general of RCD- Rally for Culture and Democracy) and Faouzi Rebaïne (President of Ahd 54). The FFS (Socialist Forces Front) calls for a boycott, several politicians denounce fraudulent manoeuvres from the start of the preparations for the elections.
Amari Saifi, alias Abderrezak El-Para, presented as n°2 of the GSPC (Salafist group for predication and battle) and responsible for the abduction, in 2003, of 32 European tourists, is arrested by Chad rebels with several of his men, in the Tibesti.
Presidential elections. According to the Ministry of the Interior, turnout was 57.78%, i.e. half of the 18 million voters went to vote. Abdelaziz Bouteflika is elected after the first round with 85% of the votes, Ali Benflis who was presented as his first rival obtains only 6.5%. The opposition suggests plebiscite and denounces fraud, but the Constitutional Council confirms the announced figures. There is question of a deal between the army and Bouteflika.
One week after Abdelaziz Bouteflika's victory, French President Jacques Chirac welcomes his "brilliant" re-election and dismisses the incrimination of fraud on the word of reports from international observers. The 6-hour visit is mainly used to show the French support of the Bouteflika election, all the more that at one stage Chirac's government seemed to bet on Ali Benflis.
There are numerous sentences against journalists for libel or offences that they did not commit, aiming at punishing them for their opposition to the President of the Republic or to the regime's big shots: Hassan Bourras, correspondent in El Bayadh (West Algeria) for several daily newspapers and correspondent for the Algerian human rights League, is sentenced to two years imprisonment; Hafnaoui Ghoul, correspondent of the El-Youm daily in Djelfa (150 km south of Algiers) and correspondent for the Algerian human rights League, is imprisoned since May 24th, 2004, and will spend 6 months in prison; Mohamed Benchicou, director of the daily Le Matin is sentenced to two years imprisonment, Ahmed Bennaoum and Ahmed Oukili, respectively Chairman-Managing-Director and Publications Manager of the Erraï newspaper are sentenced to two months imprisonment, while other journalists are condemned to deferred sentences and heavy fines.
French Minister of Defence, Michèle Alliot-Marie's visit is the first since independence. It seems that a "framework agreement for military cooperation" has been prepared and will be signed in the autumn. This will allow exchanges between the two countries in several fields, such as intelligence, weapon supplies or training of troops.
French Minister of Economy and Finance, Nicolas Sarkozy, visited Algiers and signed with his Algerian counterpart a "cooperation memorandum for growth and development". In fact, it concerns 2 billion euros that France grants Algeria in the form of targeted "financial assistance": 288 million euros for the conversion of debts into investment, 750 million euros for credit on concessions and 1 billion euros for guaranteed commercial credit.
General Mohamed Lamari resigns as chief of staff, position that he had occupied since 1994. He is one of the January 1992 putschists and head of the CC/ALAS (Anti-subversion command) when set up in 1992. He lost the match opposing him to Bouteflika whose candidature he did not support and stepped down from his post. General Ahmed Gaïd Salah takes his place and shortly after proceeds with new appointments of commanding officers in the military regions.
At a meeting in Holland, the EU Ministers of the Interior decide to financially support the creation of national asylum systems in Mauritania, Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and Libya. Algeria refuses the establishment of transit centres on its territory.
A raid by the tax inspection brigade, the gendarmes and the price and quality control unit in Ghardaia downtown shops sparks off the anger of the shopkeepers. They go on strike and gather near the seat of the willaya (prefecture) to be received by the wali. This being refused, they continue their gathering until the evening and pursue the following day. Police forces step in, set fire to the shopkeepers' mopeds, break car windows, hit people and arrest some fifty persons, shopkeepers, LADDH (Algerian human rights League) and FFS (Socialist Forces Front) activists. Four League activists are arrested, while warrants are issued against five members of their bureau and the leaders of the FFS federation. The Wali refuses to free the arrested persons, a riot breaks out and will last several days. The conflict will last weeks, more than 30 persons will be arrested. A warrant is issued against Kamel Eddine Fekhar, elected member of the FFS in Ghardaia, who has fled to Algiers.
Abderrezak El-Para, responsible for the abduction of 32 European tourists is handed over to the Algerian authorities. Neither the Americans nor the Germans, who were so eager to lay their hands on the so-called "Ben Laden of the desert" seemed to be interested.
Shortly after the conference between Aït Ahmed, FFS President, Abdelhamid Mehri, former secretary general of the FLN, and Mouloud Hamrouche, former head of government, on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the beginning of the battle for liberation, Kamel Eddine Fekhar, elected member of the FFS in Ghardaia and member of the LADDH, wanted in relation to the October disturbances in Ghardaia, was arrested.
President Bouteflika delivers a speech on the occasion of the fiftieth anniversary of the beginning of the battle for liberation. He asserts his determination to carry on a merciless struggle against terrorism and announces his intention to promulgate a general amnesty in the context of "national reconciliation", initiative that he wishes to submit to a referendum among the population. For months the press will simulate a debate around this issue, the outlines of which remain unknown.
Due to the price increase for butane gas that many inhabitants use for heating, riots break out in different regions of the country (Djelfa, Mascara, Kherrata, Bouira, Bejaia, Tiaret, etc). In this unusually cold winter, the State increased the price, but shortage and retailer speculation made gas containers shoot up to as much as three times their normal value. Fuel prices rocketed also, entailing increases in transport fees. Overall strong-arm police forces were brought in against the rioters. Dozens were arrested and often heavily sentenced with imprisonment for "disturbing law and order and civil disobedience".
The French Parliament adopted a law on the Nation's gratitude and national contribution towards the French repatriated settlers from Algeria in which article 4 stipulates: "School curricula specifically acknowledge the positive role of the French presence overseas, more particularly in North Africa, and grant the history and the sacrifices of the French army servicemen coming from these territories, the distinguished place that they deserve." Sharp protests were voiced in France, while in Algeria, the law seems to be passed over in silence.
Promulgation of an order modifying and completing law n°84-11 of 9 June 1984 on the Family code.
The Algerian Parliament ratifies the association agreement with the European Union signed in 2001. It should come into force in September 2005.
The law on hydrocarbon compounds is adopted by the Algerian Parliament. Inter alia, it foresees abandoning State monopoly on hydrocarbon activities via concession agreements.
M. Farouk Ksentini, President of the ad hoc Commission, given the responsibility by the President to get to the bottom of the issue of the disappeared, has handed over his report to the President of the Republic. He informs that the exact number of disappeared abducted by the security forces adds up to 6,146 persons. Missing persons family associations express strong protest against the activities of this instrument which has no investigation power whatsoever. They maintain that the number of disappeared is much higher (they claim to possess more than 8,000 files) and denounce the fact that "this commission recommends once more to close the dossier by granting compensations".
Release of Dr Kamel Eddine Fekhar, FFS (Socialist Forces Front) federal secretary and activist with the Algerian human rights League (LADDH), who was arrested on the day before 1st November 2004. He had been accused of "illegal gathering" and "obstruction of the public highway" and sentenced to 5 months imprisonment because of the riots having agitated the town of Ghardaia in October 2004.
The President announces his national programme for the support of economic growth (PSCE) for 2005-2009. A 55 billion dollar budget is foreseen for "the improvement of the population's living conditions" (45,4%) in particular in the field of housing, university, education, drinking water supplies, etc. Prospects for such expenditures attract foreign investors.
On the occasion of the 60th anniversary of the massacres committed by the French in Setif and Guelma, President Bouteflika delivers an extremely harsh speech. One even wonders whether the signature of the "friendship treaty" between Algeria and France foreseen before end 2005 is not in jeopardy. During the following weeks, strong controversy on the 25 February law will weigh heavily on the relations between the two countries. Nevertheless, the signature of the "friendship treaty" appears not to be jeopardised.
Amari Saifi alias Abderrezak El-Para, responsible for the abduction of tourists in the Sahara desert in 2003 is sentenced for life for "setting up an armed group having spread terror among the population". He did not appear and the criminal court's President in Algiers declared: "Amari Saïfi is considered as not imprisoned." Although he is in the hands of the Algerian authorities since 27 October 2004.
Foreign Affairs Ministers of the 5+5 group, gathering ten West Mediterranean European and Maghreb countries, meet in Malta at a conference on illegal immigration.
End of joint military manoeuvres in the Sahel, called 'Flintlock 2005' aiming – according to the Americans – at securing borders between African countries against terrorist infiltration. Under the command of the American forces in Europe, they gathered 800 American soldiers and 2000 Africans from Mali, Niger, Chad, Mauritania and Algeria. The manoeuvres lasted several weeks.
A delegation of the International Federation of Human Rights Leagues (IFHR) is in Algiers on a 5-day information mission.
The new law on hydrocarbon compounds is published in the Official Journal. The new text separates the role of the State, owner of the mining land, regulator and protector of the general interest, from that of the public company (Sonatrach), economic and commercial operator similarly to other operators. Article 48 however provides that 'each research and mining contract will contain a clause granting Sonatrach SPA, when it is not one of the contracting parties, the option to participate in the mining activity up to a share of 30%, but no lower than 20%'.
Abduction of two Algerian diplomats in Bagdad.
According to press agencies, the group of the al-Qaeda leader in Iraq, Abou Moussab al-Zarqaoui, would have announced the execution of the two abducted Algerian diplomats. Al-Zarqaoui will later refute this information. The bodies of the two men were never found.
During a TV appearance on the al-Jazeera channel on the abduction and assassination of the two Algerian diplomats in Iraq, Ali Benhadj, Vice-President of FIS, dissolved in 1992, is questioned by the Algerian police. He will be accused of praising terrorist crimes, incitement to murder and publication of written material defending terrorism.
The French satirical newspaper Le Canard enchaîné reveals that an US military base is set up near Tamanrasset gathering about 400 American special forces men to combat terrorism in the Sahel, information which is always denied by American and Algerian officials.
Dismissal of five senior officers from the military institution, due to the changes undertaken by the President since his re-election in April 2004. Among these, Major General Mohamed Touati, counsellor to the Presidency of the Republic on defence matters, and the General Secretary of the Ministry of Defence (MDN), General Ahmed Senhadji. The commands of the Republican Guard and of the Naval Forces also undergo changes a few days later.
Speech by President A. Bouteflika announcing a referendum on 29 September on a draft charter for 'peace and national reconciliation'.
Publication of the draft charter for 'peace and national reconciliation' that provides for the extinguishment of law-suits against those who give themselves up to the authorities and who have not participated in mass massacres, rapes or bomb attacks in public places, as well as the amnesty of security forces. These announcements entail sharp protests from the families of the disappeared as well as from the victims of State terrorism and of armed groups, and from human rights organisations and some opposition parties, demanding the truth on the crimes committed since 1992 and the trial of all those responsible for crimes. A genuine debate involving politicians, the opposition and human rights groups is not allowed.
General Larbi Belkheir is officially appointed Ambassador in Rabat. He is seen as the regime's muscleman, the 'éminence grise', member of the handful of generals called 'Januarists' who fomented the coup d'état in January 1992.
The association agreement between Algeria and the European Union comes into force.
Arrest of M'hamed Benyamina at Oran airport on his way to Paris where he lives with his family. The arrest is based on information forwarded by the 'Direction de la Surveillance du Territoire' (DST, the French intelligence service) to the Algerian security services. He disappears during more than 5 months, is tortured and is involved in a plan to attack Orly airport and DST headquarters. French authorities will not request his extradition.
Second congress of the Algerian Human Rights League (LADDH). The lawyer Hocine Zahouane takes over from lawyer Ali Yahia Abdenour at the head of the League.
While discussions are in progress on the return of exiled FIS leaders and their future political activities, M. Abdelaziz Bouteflika, President of the Republic, during a speech given in Laghouat, maintains that the 'leaders of the dissolved party who set Algeria on fire' should not claim any further political activity.
Referendum on the adoption of the Charter for 'peace and national reconciliation'. Officially, 80% of the registered electorate went to vote and 97% of the votes were in favour of the charter. These figures are forcefully contested by the opposition. Washington and Paris welcome the steps taken by the President and greet the referendum.
Hundreds of refugees try to cross the borders of Ceuta on 29 September and of Melilla on 6 October. Eleven of them are killed. Europe increasingly focuses on the issue only from a security viewpoint aiming at extending its frontiers and shifting the responsibility for their control on southern transit countries, in particular Algeria. The country tolerates informal refugee camps with deplorable living conditions and drives back thousands of people every year towards the South and Morocco.
Two members of the local FFS federation and of the regional Algerian Human Rights League (LADDH) are arrested and placed under surveillance. They are accused of murder. The local FFS federation is convinced that it is a 'hatched plot'.
The Government Council examined and adopted a preliminary bill fixing the terms and rules for the practice of other religions than Islam. The text contains provisions aiming at putting 'an end to anarchical activities of associations and foreign persons, and controlling by the force of law any attempts to proselytize'.
In the course of the year, there have been dozens of riots and revolts violently quelled and causing many dead, wounded and detentions among the young rebels. Whether they concerned transport fares increases, unfair housing allocations, water or electricity shortage, the protests were the expression of the poverty of the population while the State coffers were overflowing with petrodollars.
President A. Bouteflika is admitted in the military hospital of Val-de-Grâce in Paris. Speculations on the future of the country are circulating, as contradictory rumours spread on the state of his health. Some even report his death.
Strong-arm evacuation of the informal refugee camp near Maghnia. Refugees are transported by lorry towards an unknown destination. They will probably be driven back through the southern borders.
At the National Day for the new international Convention on the protection of persons against forced disappearances, former President of the LADDH, Ali Yahia Abdennour, declared that the actual number of forced disappearances is thrice higher than the official figure. The latter had been estimated at 6146 cases by Farouk Ksentini, President of the National consultative committee on the promotion and protection of human rights (CNCPPDH).
After 10 months controversy on the famous article 4 of the French law of 23 February praising colonisation, for the first time, the French Head of State takes a stand on the much debated amendment. He denied the legislator the authority to write history. 'This is the task of historians', he said. The controversial debates in France were taken up in Algeria and in the West Indies and seem to have delayed the signature of the friendship treaty between Algeria and France foreseen at the end of the year.
After five weeks in hospital and convalescence, President Bouteflika reappears for the signature of the finance law for 2006. 2006 2 January 2006: During the year 2005, 18 journalists have been sentenced to imprisonment by the Algerian Courts.
According to the newspaper 'Le Jeune Indépendant', in 2005, France deported 3,400 Algerians out of a total of 20,000 foreigners who were escorted back to the frontier.
The Bouira Court sentenced to the death penalty in absentia Habib Souaidia, author of the book La Sale Guerre (The Dirty War), published in France in 2000. He is accused of having abducted three persons in 1994, who he might have assassinated. Souaidia, an acknowledged political refugee in France, was not summoned to his trial.
The Algeria-Watch association issues a communiqué in which it states the disappearance of Nouamane Meziche since 5 January 2006. This Franco-Algerian living in Germany was arrested by the police at Algiers airport on his arrival from Frankfurt. The same day, on the Algerian radio, the President of the National consultative committee on the promotion and protection of human rights (CNCPPDH) declares that there are no 'disappeared persons' 'secretly' detained by the State.
The state of emergency established on 9 February 1992 is still in force and no official declaration leads to believe that it will be lifted in the near future.
Opacity surrounds a visit by Donald Rumsfeld, American Defence Secretary of State. According to the American agency Associated Press (AP), the visit aims at building 'a tight military relationship'.
Equally non-transparent visit by Jack Straw, head of British diplomacy. The issue of Algerians imprisoned in England without judgment may have been raised.
Revelations on tortures inflicted by French policemen on Algerians suspected of links with terrorism.
Naamane Meziche turns up again: he appears before the examining magistrate. He had disappeared after his arrest at Algiers airport on 5 January 2006.
In Algiers, opening of an international seminar on the fight against terrorism in the Maghreb and Sahel-Sahara region, with the participation of eight African countries among which Algeria, and American and European partners.
Higher education teachers start a one-week strike (from 25 February to 2 March) in response to the call of the National Council of Higher Education Teachers (CNES). Claims involve salary increases, a specific statute for teachers-cum-researchers, democratisation of university management by organising elections of deans and heads of departments, generalisation of the Specific Post Allowance (ISP) that represents 80% of the salary, allocation of housing facilities to teachers and regularisation of the housing situation already allocated since the year 2000.
Publication of the order implementing the charter for peace and national reconciliation, together with three enforcement decrees. Every person involved in terrorist matters, but without committing massacres, rape or bomb attacks, is granted the extinguishment of public legal action if he/she is in prison or surrenders to the authorities within a period of six months. The great novelty is that total amnesty is codified for security service members in all their forms. The text also foresees that those who question the official version of the 'national tragedy' may be sentenced to 3 to 5 years' imprisonment. The sentence is doubled in the event of a second offence.
The Council of Ministers examined and adopted a bill determining the rules for the practice of religions other than Islam.
Release of Ali Benhadj, arrested on 27 July 2005. In accordance with the provisions of the order implementing the charter for peace, he is granted the extinguishment of all lawsuits.
Families of victims of terrorism gathered in front of the Government palace, in Algiers, to cry out "their grief and refusal to support this 'memory assassination' policy". The order implementing the charter raises protests from different national and international victims and human rights organisations.
At a press conference, Head of Government Ahmed Ouyahia revealed that the 1998 massacres in Ramka and Had Chekala (Relizane) affected 1,000 people. Three entire villages had been decimated. At the time, authorities mentioned the figure of 150 people killed.
Ten years after the abduction of seven French monks in Tibehirine, who were assassinated in May 1996, Patrick Baudouin, the lawyer of their families, denounces the long-drawn-out investigations carried out in France by anti-terrorist judge Jean-Louis Bruguière. No inquiry has been carried out in Algeria.
Rachid Ramda is sentenced to ten years imprisonment by the Paris magistrate's court for having participated in and funded the attacks against the RER in the Saint-Michel station in 1995. The bombings killed 8 persons and wounded more than 200. He was extradited last December from London, where he had spent ten years in prison because British authorities refused to extradite him to France. He proclaims his innocence. He still has to appear before the Court of Assizes.
The United Nations Committee on Human Rights made public its findings on the arrest of Salah Saker in May 1994, who has since disappeared. The Committee declared the Algerian State guilty of 'serious violations' in respect of forced disappearances.
New arrest of M'Hamed Benyamina who had been imprisoned on 9 September 2005 and had disappeared for more than 5 months before being set free early March 2006.
The Pentagon published a list of 558 prisoners in the Guantanamo Bay camp, among whom 25 Algerians.
Amnesty International referred to the President of the Republic with a memorandum called "Algeria: Torture in the 'War on Terror'" in which it condemns the practice of torture in Algeria.
The United Nations Committee on Human Rights made public its findings on the abduction of Riad Boucherf in June1995, who has since disappeared. The Committee declared the Algerian State guilty of 'serious violations' in respect of forced disappearances.
On the occasion of the International Day of Freedom of the Press, a measure of pardon was promulgated in favour of journalists.
Since March, the Algerian army is engaged in a military offensive in the Seddat Mountains, in the Jijel wilaya where an armed group is said to have taken refuge. During the final assault, chemical arms would have been used to be done with people entrenched in a cave. Fifty-two people (among whom twenty-two children, seven women and twenty-three presumed terrorists) are said to have died during this raid.
Memorandum by the Socialist Forces Front on the situation of human rights in Algeria addressed to Mrs Louise Harbour, United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights. 24 May 2006: Prime Minister Ahmed Ouyahia, RND general secretary, in office since 2003, is replaced by Abdelaziz Belkhadem, FLN general secretary. Ouyahia is considered as one of Mohamed Médiène's men, head of the DRS. The rest of the Ouyahia government continues.
During the visit of Kim Howells, British Minister of State at the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, discussions concern an extradition agreement allowing Great Britain to drive back to the borders Algerians in particular involved in the project of a ricine attack for which they had been judged and acquitted. These men are still in prison in Great Britain.
The Director of the daily newspaper Le Matin, Mohamed Benchicou, who was arrested in 2004 and sentenced to two years imprisonment for 'violation of exchange control', is released. In fact, he was condemned for having published, before the April 2004 Presidential elections, a scathing attack against President Bouteflika.
British authorities expel two Algerians identified by the initials 'V' and 'I', who were members of a group of four Algerians acquitted after the so-called 'ricine plot' trial in April 2005. Both are arrested on their arrival in Algiers and disappear for a few days in a DRS centre. They are only released on 22 June.
The President is said to have frozen the law on hydrocarbons which had been adopted and published in the Official Journal on 19 July 2005. No enforcement decree has been published to date.
SOS Disparus and the CFDA (Alliance of Families of Disappeared in Algeria) were informed of the disappearance since three months of Abdelmajid Touati, from Tiaret, after his arrest in the street by security services.
Algeria-Watch obtains information on the arrest in the Jijel region of four persons in the night of Wednesday 26 to Thursday 27 April by DRS agents. They were transferred to their headquarters in Jijel where they were atrociously tortured and illegally confined during a week.
On the occasion of the 44th Anniversary of Independence Day, on 5th July 2006, all journalists who had been sentenced to press offences are pardoned.
Amnesty International publishes a report demonstrating that the 'war against terrorism' is used as justification for continued tortures and other ill-treatments committed by the Information and Security Department (DRS).
The Alliance of Families of Disappeared in Algeria (CFDA) and SOS Disparus announce that Mohamed Amine Rabah Ajine has disappeared since 19 June. The Ajine family was informed of his presence in the Antar barracks (Algiers) via a relative of a prisoner in jail with him. Likewise, Zinedine Belaacel, Madjid Touati and Mohamed El Habib Boukhami and many other people are secretly held prisoners in the DRS Antar barracks, following a wave of arrests affecting the Tiaret wilaya since several months.
Mr Yazid Zerhouni, Minister of the Interior and of Local Communities, announces that the referendum on the revision of the Constitution will be held before the end of the year.
A few days before the end of the grace period granted by the authorities to the underground armed groups still in operation, in application of the order on the Charter for peace and national reconciliation, according to the Minister of the Interior, Yazid Zerhouni, 250 to 300 persons are said to have surrendered to the authorities.
The President of the Republic, Abdelaziz Bouteflika, signed a decree on the compensation of the victims of the events that shook Kabylia between 2001 and 2004. This historic timeline was posted by www.algeria-watch.org | |
Ahmed Bey ben Mohamed Chérif edit
Hadj Ahmed Bey Ben Mohammed Chérif الحاج أحمد باي بن محمد شريف | |
|---|---|
 Prtrait of Ahmed Bey | |
| Born | Error: Invalid birth date for calculating age |
| Died | August 30, 1851 (aged 65) |
| Nationality | Algerian |
| Known for | Last bey of Constantine, French conquest of Algeria |
Ahmed Bey (Hadj Ahmed Bey Ben Mohammed Chérif 1786-1851) (Arabic: أحمد باي) is the last bey of Constantine. Son of Mohammed Cherif, and El Hadja Béguia, daughter of Ben Ganah (Mozabite noble family). His grand father was the head of the city of Collo, and Governor of the Beylik (territory) of Algiers is between 1768 and 1771.
He was the last legitimate Governor of Algeria after the surrender of Hussein Dey, he then received of the ottoman Caliphate, the title of Pasha of Algeria. He reigned by maintaining his well-deserved reputation of Algerian East tyrant, from August 1826 to December 15, 1837. He fought against the French presence, from October 1837 to June 1848.
Biography edit
Barely eighteen years old, the bey Abd Allah gave him the title of Caïd (Chief) of the el Aouassi tribes. Following the earthquake in the Blida region the dey, appointed him to Hunah el Kadous, around Algiers, and gives him the enjoyment of haouch Ouled Baba. Ahmed Bey engages in passions, such as hunting and the horses. From time to time he took part in several expeditions to protect the Ottoman troops, who were engaged against hostile Kabyle tribes such as the Beni Menad and the Beni Djenad. During his pilgrimage to Mecca which lasted fifteen months, from Egypt he met several famous people, including Muhammad Ali Pasha, his son Ibrahim Pasha and Toussoun Pasha.
Appointed bey of Constantine in 1826, he modernized the country focusing on the army. He led the Algerian resistance against the French occupation forces in the East of the Algeria with the aid of Hussein Pasha and, after the capture of Algiers, he retired in his province to Constantine. In 1832 he entrusted to his lieutenant Ben Aïssa the care for the population of Bône. He organized the defence of Constantine, Algeria, and leads several battles against the French army.
In January 1834, the Bey of Constantine Hadj Ahmed Bey and the chiefs of the constantinoises tribes send a complaint to the British Parliament to seek the help of Britain against french forces. He won his first success in 1836 against the maréchal Clauzel. When Constantine was sieged by the French in 1837, Ahmed Bey manages to escape and to organize resistance in the Aurès Mountains. In 1842, he rallies the tribe of Ouled Nasser, hoping to give the hand in the Kabyles, and approached the camp of Ain Roumel. Launched its Crown, on 25 August 1842, French General Jean-René Sillègue enters the land of the Amouchas, name of a village north of Sétif, and met a gathering of two to three thousand Kabyles who failed to stop him. On September 10, the General defeated the Cavalry of Hadj Ahmed Bey at the foot of Djbel Bou Taleb, and manages to destroy his influence on the tribes of the Tell.
Ahmed died on August 30, 1850, 65 years old. According to his wishes, he is buried in Algiers in the mosque of Sidi Abder Rahman of Algiers in Bab El Oued. His marble mausoleum, is surmounted by a turban.
Double (association football) edit
CR Belouizdad detains the record in the number of wins [4] rsssf.com</ref>.
| Club | # Wins | Seasons |
|---|---|---|
| CR Belouizdad | 3 | 1966, 1969 and 1970 |
| ES Setif | 2 | 1967 and 2012 |
| JS Kabylie | 2 | 1977 and 1986 |
| MO Constantine | 1 | 1974 |
| MC Alger | 1 | 1976 |
| WA Tlemcen | 1 | 1998 |
| USM Alger | 1 | 2003 |
Ali Khodja edit
Ali Ben Ahmed, nicknamed Ali Khodja, was the dey of Algiers from September 1817, just after the assassination of his predecessor Omar Agha the 8th. He remained so until his death in February 1818.
A few days after his arrival, and to better ensure her safety, he left the Palace of the Djenina located in the lower part of the city of Casbah and offering small defences, to move to the fortress of the Casbah where he put the treasure safe. He died of the plague in February 28, 1818[1].
Omar Agha edit
Omar Agha was dey of Algiers from April 1815 to September 1817, after the assassination of his predecessor Mohamed Kharnadji the 7th of April 1815, who had been only for 17 days in office, also, after the assassination of his predecessor.
He launched a war against Tunis, and leaded the Attacks of Barbary privateers on American ships, an expedition of the US Navy led by Commodore Stephen Decatur in the head of a squadron of nine ships, is conducted in 1815 against the Regency of Algiers. The episode is known as the Second Barbary War. The operation force the dey Omar to sign a treaty ending attacks, treaty that he denounces also shortly after.
The Congress of Vienna, which addressed the problem of Christian slaves from barbaresque piracy, charged the United Kingdom of the discussion with the dey of Algiers and the beys of Tunis and Tripoli.
If the latter two were supportive, it is not the same for Omar Agha. It would takes the bombardment of Algiers on 27 August 1816, by the anglo-dutchs commanded by British Admiral Lord Exmouth, to bring the dey to abolish the slavery. But despite the signing of a treaty and the release of 3,000 europeans slaves, this is of little effect as the Congress of Aachen evokes again the same problem in 1818.
Omar was strangled on September 8, 1817 by the janissaries, following its repeated defeats and domestic problems. His successor was Ali ben Ahmed.
List of beys of Constantine, Algeria edit
Since the year 1528 a.d., and under the Regency of Algiers, the Constantine Province (or Constantine beylik) is governed by a Bey appointed by the dey of Algiers, until Constantine had been taken by the French Royal Army on 13 October 1837. As for the other provinces of the Regency (the beylik of Oran and the beylik of the Titteri), the bey of Constantine was the representative of the dey of Algiers and administrative province in his name.
Since 1528 and until 1830, the province of Constantine is governed by 44 beys, the first was Ramdane-Tchulak bey who reigned on the province between 1528 and 1567. The last was Ahmed Bey who's reign started in 1826. This is the list of the beys and the year their mandate begun, annotated with important facts[2] :
- Ramdane-Tchulak bey, 1528
- Djaâfer bey, 1567
- Mourad bey, 1637 - was remembered by the revolt of Ahmed Sakheri
- Ferhat bey, 1648
- Mohammed bey ben Ferbat, 1652
- Redjem bey, 1667
- Kheïr ed-din bey, 1673
- Abdul-Rahman Dali bey, 1676
- Omar ben Abd-el Ramdan, 1679
- Châban bey, 1687
- Ali Khoudja bey, 1692
- Ahmed bey ben Ferhat, 1700
- Brahim bey, 1702
- Hamouda bey, 1709
- Ali bey ben Hamouda, 1708
- Hussein chaouch, 1709
- Abd-el Rahman bey, 1710
- Hosseïn Denguezli Bey, 1710
- Ali bey ben Salah, 1710
- Kelian Hussein bou Komia, 1713
- Hussein bey Bousnek, 1746
- Hosseïn Bey dit Zereg-Aïnou (title meaning "the blue eyed"), 1753
- Ahmed Bey El-Kolli, 1756, deceased from illness
- Salah Bey, 1771 - 1792, born in 1725 in Izmir in Turkey. Hassan Pacha, the dey of Algiers, ordered his assassination in 1792.
- Hussein Bey ben Bousnek, 1st september 1791, son of Hassan Pacha Bousnek, assassinated.
- El Asrak Aïno, 1791
- Moustapha ben Sliman El-Ouznadji, February 1795 - Janvier 1798, assassinated.
- Hadj-Mustapha-Ingliz (called "the British"), January 1798 - 1803 exiled to Tunis
- Osman Ben Koulougli, 1803, Killed facing Kabyles rebels
- Abdallah Bey, 1804, Assassinated.
- Hussein bey ben Salah, 1806, son of Salah bey the Turkish. Assassinated as was his father.
- Ali bey ben Youssef, august 1807. Assassinated.
- Bey-Rouhou, , Quinze jours de règne. Assassinated.
- Ahmed bey Tobbal, 1808 - 1811. Assassinated.
- Mohammed Nàman bey, 1811 - 1814. Assassinated.
- Mohammed Chakar bey, 1814 - 1818. Assassinated.
- Kara Mustapha, 1818 - 1818, 33 days of reign. Assassinated.
- Ahmed Bey El Mamelouk, 1818 - 1818, reigned for a month, he was named bey once again later.
- Braham bey Charbi, 1 year of reign. Assassinated.
- Mohammed bey Mili, 1818 - 1819, surnamed bou chetabia (the Machete man). 2 years of reign. Exiled to Algiers.
- Ahmed bey El Mamelouk, 1820 - 1822. Exiled to Miliana, where he is assassinated.
- Ibrahim bey, 1822 - 1824, Exiled to Médéa, Assassinated in 1832 on the orders of Ahmed Bey.
- Mohammed bey Malamli, 1824 - 1826, or Manamani. Deux ans de règne. Exilé à Alger.
- Ahmed Bey, 1826 - 15 décembre 1837. Declared dethroned by the French Empire the december 15th, 1830, for non submission.
See also edit
Sidi Abder Rahman El Thaelebi edit
Sidi Abdul-Rahman (1384 ce/785 ah - 1479 ce/875 ah) was born near the town of Isser 86 km south east of Algiers. He was rised in a very spiritual environment with high Islamic values and ethics[3].
When 15 years old, Sidi Abdul-Rahman, with his father Sidi Mohamed Ben Makhlouf, went to Morocco for studies where he met the muslim scholar Sidi Mohamed Ibn Marzoug Al Adrissi. In 1392, he made another trip to Bejaia (200 km east of Algiers) seeking knowledge where his father passed away. He stayed in Bejaia for 7 years studying islamic sciences.
He then travelled to Tunis in 1406, Cairo in 1414 and Bursa in Turkey, where he was well received and a shrine was erected in his honour which remains an endowment for this saint man.
From Turkey, Sidi Abdul-Rahman went to perform Hajj to Mecca, after which he returned to his native Algeria after a 20 years. He teached in the Great Mosque of Algiers until he died on the Friday of 23rd of Ramadan 875 AH, the 15th of March 1479 after dedicating 95 years of his life to serve Islam and Muslims.
Legacy edit
He left a legacy of more than 100 books, among which, the most important Al Jawahir Al Hissane fi Tafsir Al Koran (the fine pearls in the exegesis of the Koran). He was buried near the quarter of "Bab El Oued" in the heart of Algiers.
Prayer times edit
To calculate prayer times two astronomical mesures are necessary, the declination of the sun and the difference between clock time and sundial clock. This difference being the result of the eccentricity of the earth's orbit and the inclination of its axe, it is called the Equation of time. The declination of the sun is the angle between sun's rays and the equator plan[4].
In addition to the above measures, to calculate prayer times for a specific location we need the its spherical coordinates[5].
In the following is the time zone, and the time equation value. and are respectively the Longitude and the Latitude of the considered point.
An other important equation gives the time difference between when the sun hits its highest point in the sky (Dhuhr time) and any other angle , as follow:
- Midday (Dhuhr) time is easily obtained. When the sun reaches the mid sky, time is given by:
- Sunrise (Chorok) and Sunset (Maghreb) time are given by , in fact it is the astronomical sunset/sunrise that occurs for . 0.833 is a slight correction that gives the actual time. So and .
If we consider the elevation of the point we should add another correction to the constant .
- For Fadjr and Isha many conventions about the angle exist. It is of 17 and 18 degrees respectively for Fadjr and Isha prayers according to the Muslim World League.
- For Asr time according to the majority of muslim schools, including Shafi'i, Maliki, Ja'fari, and Hanbali, it is when the length of an object shadows became equal to its length plus the length of its shadow at noon. The Hanafi schools states that the time of Asr is when an object's shadow reaches two times the length of the object itself, plus the length of its shadow at noon. The time the shadow of an object reaches times its length is given by the equation: .
- It is called for the Maghrib prayer when the sun is completely folded behind the horizon, plus 3 minutes by precaution.
Hocine Aït Ahmed edit
Hocine Aït Ahmed حسين آيت أحمد | |
|---|---|
 Ait Ahmed during the summer of 1958 | |
| Born | August 20, 1926 |
| Nationality | Algerian |
| Known for | Algerian war, Socialist Forces Front |
After the war for Algerian independence, during wiche he was one of the main leaders of the National Liberation Front (FLN), Aït Ahmed resigned from the provisional Government of the Algerian Republic (GPRA) and all the organs of the new power, during the crisis of the summer 1962. In September 1963, he founded the Socialist Forces Front (FFS) which seeks political pluralism in political life locked by the single party system.
Arrested and sentenced to death in 1964, he escaped from the El Harrach prison on May 1st, 1966. Exiled in Switzerland, he became a doctor of law. He returned to Algeria after the riots of 1988 but again left his country after the assassination of the President, Mohamed Boudiaf, in 1992. He had repeatedly returned to Algeria since then, including during the 50th anniversary of the outbreak of the war of liberation (November 1st, 1954).