India is one of the most religiously diverse nations in the world, with religion playing a central role in the lives of most Indians. The Indian constitution declares India to be a secular republic and provides the citizens the right to worship and propagate any religion or faith.[1][2]
Over 80% of the people in India practice Hinduism, which has its origins within the Indian subcontinent. Islam is practised by 13.4% of all Indians, Christianity by 2.3%, and Sikhism by 1.8%.[3] Buddhism and Jainism both arose on the Indian subcontinent and have a world-wide presence; in addition, Zoroastrianism and Judaism have a long history in India, but their present-day numbers are small.
History edit
Evidence of prehistoric religions in India is sparse. The people of the Indus Valley Civilization (c. 3300–1700 BC in Indus and Ghaggar-Hakra river valleys of the Indian subcontinent) probably worshipped a Mother goddess symbolizing fertility. Excavations of Indus Valley Civilization sites show seals with animals and ‘fire‑altars’ (indicating rituals associated with fire). A linga-yoni of the same type as is worshipped now by Hindus has also been found.
Hinduism's origins include cultural elements of the Indus valley civilisation, the Vedic religion of the Indo-Aryans, and other Indian civilizations. The oldest surviving text of Hinduism is the Rigveda, which is dated to 1700–1100 BCE.[4] After the Vedic period came the Epic and Puranic periods. The epic poems Ramayana and Mahabharata were written roughly from 400 BCE to 200 CE, although they were transmitted orally for hundreds of years prior to this period.[5]
After 200 AD several schools of thought were formally codified in Indian philosophy, including Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Purva-Mimamsa and Vedanta.[6] Atheistic schools also existed in Hinduism, which is otherwise a very theistic religion. The thoroughly materialistic and anti-religious philosophical Carvaka School that originated in India around 6th century BCE is probably the most explicitly atheistic school of philosophy in India. This branch of Indian philosophy is classified as a heterodox system and is not considered part of the six orthodox schools of Hinduism, but it is noteworthy as evidence of a materialistic movement within Hinduism.[7] Our understanding of Carvaka philosophy is fragmentary, based largely on criticism of the ideas by other schools, and it is no longer a living tradition.[8] Other Indian philosophies generally regarded as atheistic include Classical Samkhya and Purva Mimamsa.
According to the Buddhist tradition, the historical Gautama Buddha was born to the Shakya clan, at the beginning of the Magadha period (546–324 BCE), in the plains of Lumbini, in what is now southern Nepal. Mahavira (599–527 BC, though possibly 549–477 BC) established the central tenets of Jainism. Buddhism and Jainism adapted elements of Hinduism into their beliefs. Buddhism peaked during the reign of Asoka the Great of the Mauryan Empire, who unified the Indian subcontinent in the 3rd century BCE. He also sent missionaries to spread Buddhism to places outside of South Asia, such as Afghanistan, Central Asia, the Middle East and even Egypt.[citation needed] Buddhism declined in India following the loss of patronage due to the fall of sympathetic rulers such as the kings of Magadha, Kosala and the Kushan.
The period between 400 BCE and 1000 CE saw gains by Hinduism at the expense of Buddhism.[9] Buddhism subsequently became effectively extinct in India. Though Islam came to India in the early 7th century with the advent of Arab traders, it started to become a major religion during the Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent. Islam spread in India mainly during the Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526) and the Mughal periods, greatly aided by the simple practices of Sufism (a mystic tradition of Islam). Although historical evidence suggests the presence of Christianity in India since the first century, it became popular following European colonisation and missionary efforts.
Communal conflicts have played a vital role in shaping the religious history of modern India. British India was partitioned along religious lines into two states — Dominion of Pakistan (later Islamic Republic of Pakistan) with a Muslim majority and Union of India (later Republic of India) with a Hindu majority. The aftermath of the Partition of India in 1947 saw large scale sectarian strife and bloodshed throughout the nation. Demographics changed significantly due to the migration of millions of people following the partition. Since then, India has witnessed occasional bouts of large-scale violence sparked by underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities. Republic of India is secular, there is no official religion of the country. However, religion-based politics has significantly increased, and often leads to tension in the communal life of the country.
Major religions edit
Hinduism is the largest religion in India with 828 million adherents, comprising 80.4% of the population. The word Hindu, originally a geographical description, derives from the Sanskrit, Sindhu, (the historical appellation for the river Indus), and refers to a person from the land of the river Sindhu. Islam is the largest minority religion in India. As of 2001, there were about 138 million Muslims in India (the second largest population in the world, after Indonesia), which is 13.4% of the population. Muslims represent majority in Jammu and Kashmir and Lakshadweep,[10] and high concentrations in the states of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, and Kerala.[10][3] Sunni Islam is the denomination practiced by nearly 90% of Indian Muslims.[11]
Christianity is a monotheistic religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus as presented in the New Testament.[12] Christianity is the third largest religion of India, making up 2.3% of the population. Christianity is prevalent in North-East India, Goa and Kerala. Buddhism is a dharmic, nontheistic religion and philosophy. Buddhists form majority populations in the Indian states of Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, and the Ladakh region of Jammu and Kashmir. In all, around 8 million Buddhists live in India today. Jainism is a nontheistic, dharmic religion and philosophy originating in ancient India. Jains comprises only 0.4% (around 4.2 million) of India's population, and are mostly present in the states of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan and Karnataka.[10] Sikhism began in sixteenth century Northern India with the teachings of Nanak and nine successive human gurus. As of 2001, there were 19.2 million Sikhs in India. Punjab is the spiritual home of Sikhs, and is the only state in India where Sikhs form a majority. There are also significant populations of Sikhs in the neighbouring states of Haryana and New Delhi.
As of the census of 2001, Parsis (followers of Zoroastrianism in India) represent approximately 0.006% of the total population of India,[13] with a concentration in and around the city of Mumbai. There are several tribal religions in India, such as Donyi-Polo, Rangfrah, and Mahima. About 2.2 million people in India follow the Bahá'í Faith, thus forming the largest community of Bahá'ís in the world.[14] Ayyavazhi, prevalent in Southern India, is officially considered a sect within Hinduism, and its followers are counted as Hindus in the census. A very minor community of Jews is present in Kerala and Maharashtra. India is also home to a considerable number of atheists and agnostics. 0.07% of the people did not state their religion in 2001 census.
Demographics edit
Following is the break-up of different religions in India:
| Religion | Persons | Percent |
|---|---|---|
| All Religions | 1,028,610,328 | 100.00% |
| Hindus | 827,578,868 | 80.456% |
| Muslims | 138,188,240 | 13.434% |
| Christians | 24,080,016 | 2.341% |
| Sikhs | 19,215,730 | 1.868% |
| Buddhists | 7,955,207 | 0.773% |
| Jains | 4,225,053 | 0.41% |
| Others | 6,639,626 | 0.645% |
| Religion not stated | 727,588 | 0.07% |
| Composition | Hindus[15] | Muslims[16] | Christians[17] | Sikhs[18] | Buddhist[19] | Jains[20] | Others[21] |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| % total of population 2001 | 80.46 | 13.43 | 2.34 | 1.87 | 0.77 | 0.41 | 0.65 |
| 10-Yr Growth % (est '91–'01)[22][β] | 20.3 | 36.0 | 22.6 | 18.2 | 24.5 | 26 | 103.1 |
| Sex ratio* (avg. 933) | 931 | 936 | 1009 | 893 | 953 | 940 | 992 |
| Literacy rate (avg. 64.8) | 65.1 | 59.1 | 80.3 | 69.4 | 72.7 | 94.1 | 47.0 |
| Work Participation Rate | 40.4 | 31.3 | 39.7 | 37.7 | 40.6 | 32.9 | 48.4 |
| Rural sex ratio[22] | 944 | 953 | 1001 | 895 | 958 | 937 | 995 |
| Urban sex ratio[22] | 894 | 907 | 1026 | 886 | 944 | 941 | 966 |
| Child sex ratio (0–6 yrs) | 925 | 950 | 964 | 786 | 942 | 870 | 976 |
Source: The First Report on Religion: Census of India 2001[23]
α. ^ The data excludes Mao-Maram, Paomata and Purul subdivisions of Senapati District of Manipur
β. ^ The data is "unadjusted" (without excluding Assam and Jammu and Kashmir); 1981 census was not conducted in Assam and 1991 census was not conducted in Jammu and Kashmir
Constitution and law edit
The preamble to the Constitution of India states that India is a sovereign socialist secular democratic republic. The word secular was inserted into the Preamble by the 42nd amendment act of 1976. It implies equality of all religions and religious tolerance. Thus India does not have an official state religion; every person has the right to preach, practice and propagate any religion they choose. The government must not favour or discriminate against any religion. It must treat all religions with equal respect. All citizens, irrespective of their religious beliefs are equal in the eyes of law. No religious instruction is imparted in government or government-aided schools. The Supreme Court of India in S. R. Bommai vs. Union of India held that secularism was an integral part of the basic structure of the constitution.[24]
The right to freedom of religion is a fundamental right according to the Indian Constitution. The Constitution also recommends establishment of a uniform civil code for its citizens as a Directive Principle.[25] However this has not been implemented until now. The Supreme Court has stated that the enactment of a uniform civil code all at once may be counterproductive to the unity of the nation, and only a gradual progressive change should be brought about (Pannalal Bansilal v State of Andhra Pradesh, 1996).[26] In Maharishi Avadesh v Union of India (1994) the Supreme Court dismissed a petition seeking a writ of mandamus against the government to introduce a common civil code, and thus laid the responsibility of its introduction on the legislature.[27]
As of now religious communities continue to be governed by their own personal laws (apart from Muslims, this applies to Christians, Zoroastrians, Jews and Hindus, as well as Buddhists and Sikhs who, for legal purposes, are classified as Hindus).[28] Civil laws for Muslims are based on the Sharia. However, the Code of Criminal Procedure is uniformly applied to all the citizens of India.
Influence of religion on social life edit
Religion plays significant role in the Indian way of life. Rituals, worships and other religious activities are very prominent in an individual's daily life, as well as the cumulative life of people. However, the degree of religiousness varies among individuals, and lately there has been significant decrease in observance of religious activities, especially among the younger generation of urban Indians.
Regular activities edit
In India, on a day-to-day basis, the vast majority of people engage in ritual actions that are motivated by religious systems.[29] Most Hindus observe religious rituals at home.[30] However, observation of rituals greatly vary among regions, villages, and individuals. Devout Hindus perform daily chores such as worshiping at the dawn after bathing (usually at a family shrine, and typically includes lighting a lamp and offering foodstuffs before the images of deities), recitation from religious scripts, singing hymns in praise of gods etc.[30] A notable feature in religious ritual is the division between purity and pollution. Religious acts presuppose some degree of impurity or defilement for the practitioner, which must be overcome or neutralized before or during ritual procedures. Purification, usually with water, is thus a typical feature of most religious action.[30] Other characteristics include a belief in the efficacy of sacrifice and concept of merit, gained through the performance of charity or good works, that will accumulate over time and reduce sufferings in the next world.[30] Devout Muslims offer five daily prayers at specific times of the day, indicated by adhan (call to prayer) from the local mosques. Before each offering of prayer, the individual must be in pure condition and has to wash the parts of the body which are generally exposed to dirt or dust, a ritual known as wudu. In a recent study by the Sachar Committee it was found that 3-4% of Muslim children study in Madrasas, which are basically Islamic schools.[31]
Eating habit is significantly influenced by the religion — several Hindus, especially in states lacking sea coast, are vegetarian, whereas a very small proportion of Muslim and Christians are vegetarian.[32] Jainism requires monks and laity, from all its sects and traditions, to be vegetarian. Hinduism bars consuming beef, while Islam bars pork.
Special occasions edit
Occasions like birth, marriage, death involve often elaborate sets of religious customs. In Hinduism, life-cycle rituals include Annaprashan (first intake of solid food to the baby), Upanayanam ("Sacred thread ceremony" of upper-caste), Shraadh (ritual of treating people to feasts in the name of the deceased).[33][34] For most people in India, the betrothal of the young couple and the exact date and time of the wedding are matters decided by the parents in consultation with astrologers.[33]
Muslims practice a series of life-cycle rituals that differ from those of Hindus, Jains, or Buddhists.[35] Several rituals mark the first days of life—including whispering call to prayer, first bath, shaving of head. Religious instruction starts at age four years, four months, and four days while male circumcision takes place between the ages of seven and twelve.[35] Marriage requires a payment by the husband to the wife and the solemnization of a marital contract in a social gathering.[35] On the third day after burial of the dead, friends and relatives come to console the bereaved, read the Quran, and pray for the soul of the deceased.[35] A significant aspect of Islam in India is the importance of shrines attached to the memory of great Sufi saints.[35]
Holy sites and pilgrimages edit
India hosts numerous pilgrimage sites of many religions. Several cities are considered as holy cities in Hinduism, such as Allahabad, Haridwar, Varanasi, Vrindavan. Notable places for specific temples include Puri for the Jagannath temple, Tirumala - Tirupati for the Tirumala Venkateswara Temple and Katra for the Vaishno Devi temple. Badrinath, Kedarnath, Gangotri and Yamunotri in the Himalayas form the Char Dham (four abodes) pilgrimage circuit. Kumbh Mela (the Pitcher Festival) is one of the holiest of Hindu pilgrimages that is undertaken every four years in Allahabad, Haridwar, Nashik and Ujjain by rotation.
Among the Eight Great Places of Buddhism, seven are in India. Bodh Gaya, Sarnath and Kushinagar are the places where important events in the life of Gautama Buddha took place. Sanchi hosts a Buddhist stupa that the emperor Ashoka erected. Several Tibetan Buddhist sites in the Himalayan foothills of India have been built, such as Rumtek Monastery and Dharamsala.
The Dargah Shareef of Khwaza Moinuddin Chishti in Ajmer is a prominent Islamic pilgrimage site. Other Islamic pilgrimages include those to the Tomb of Sheikh Salim Chishti in Fatehpur Sikri, Jama Masjid in Delhi, and to Haji Ali Dargah in Mumbai.
Dilwara Temples in Mount Abu, Palitana, Pavapuri, Girnar and Shravanabelagola are notable pilgrimage sites (Tirtha) in Jainism.
The Golden Temple at Amritsar is the most sacred shrine of Sikhism, while the Thalaimaippathi at Swamithope is the leading pilgrim center for Ayyavazhi's.
Lotus Temple in Delhi is a prominent house of worship of the Bahá'í faith.
Religious festivals edit
Religious festivals hold great importance in the Indian way of life and their large and boisterous celeberation is common. In keeping with India's secular credentials no religious festival has been accorded the status of a national holiday. Hindu festivals of Diwali, Ganesh Chaturthi, Holi, Durga puja, Ugadi, Dussehra, Sankranthi/Pongal and the Islamic festivals of Eid-ul-Fitr, Eid-ul-Adha, Muharram, and Ramadan are the most popular religious festivals in India. Christmas, Buddha Jayanti, and Guru Nanak's Birthday are also celebrated nationwide, and are particularly popular among corresponding religious populations. A number of festivals are common to most parts of India. In addition, many states and regions have local festivals depending on prevalent religious and linguistic demographics. For example, fairs and festivities associated with local temples or Dargahs of specific Pirs are common.
Muharram, is a unique festival in the sense that it is not celebrated but mourned as a commemoration of a tragedy, the death of Muhammads grandson Imam Husain. During the mourning a striking feature is the parading of the bamboo replica of the tomb of Imam Husain called Taziya which is carried throughout the city. This tragedy is observed with great passion in Lucknow, in particular, as it is the centre of Shia culture and religious activities.[36]
Problems edit
Communal strifes edit
Communal conflicts have plagued the country several times. Probably the roots of such strifes lie in the underlying tensions between sections of its majority Hindu and minority Muslim communities, and started from the days of Partition. The conflicts also stem from the ideologies of Hindu Nationalism versus Islamic Fundamentalism and Islamism prevalent in certain sections of the population. Notable incidents of communal violence include the 1984 Anti-Sikh Riots, the 1992 Bombay Riots following the demolition of Babri Mosque as a result of the Ayodhya debate, and the 2002 Gujarat violence following the Godhra Train Burning. Terrorist activities such as the 2005 Ram Janmabhoomi attack in Ayodhya, the 2006 Varanasi bombings, the 2006 Jama Masjid explosions, and the 11 July 2006 Mumbai Train Bombings are often claimed to have their roots in communal strife. Apart from these major incidents, often minor incidents leading to communal disharmony plagues the towns and villages.
Religion and politics edit
Politics in India has been influenced by the religious aspirations of the public from time to time. The BJP, a Hindu nationalist party, established itself on the national political scene after its leaders associated themselves with the Ram Janmabhoomi movement, which is basically a religious controversy.
A high degree of casteism and communalism had prevailed in British India and had been politicised often (such as during the notification of the Govt of India Act, 1935). Due to the high degree of oppression faced by the lower castes, the Constitution of India included provisions for affirmative action for certain sections of Indian society. Growing disenchantment with the Hindu caste system has however led thousands of Dalits (or untouchables) to embrace Buddhism and Christianity in recent years.[37] In response many BJP ruled states have introduced laws to check such conversions on the ground that these are forced and allured.[38]
A well known accusation that Indian political parties make for their rivals is that they play vote bank politics, meaning give political support to issues for the sole purpose of gaining the votes of members of a particular community. Both the Congress Party and the BJP have been accused of exploiting the people by indulging in vote bank politics. The Shah Bano case, a divorce law suit, generated much controversy when the Congress was accused of appeasing the Muslim community by bringing in a parliamentary amendment to negate the Supreme Court's decision. There have been allegations that sensing an consolidation of Hindu votes against the Congress, its Prime Minister, Rajiv Gandhi, ordered the opening of locks in the Ram Temple at Ayodhya to appease the Hindus.[39][40] After the 2002 Gujarat violence, there were allegations of political parties indulging in vote bank politics.[41] During an election campaign in Uttar Pradesh, the BJP allegedly released an inflammatory CD targeting Muslims. This was condemned by the Communist Party of India (Marxist) as playing the worst kind of vote bank politics.
See also edit
- Religion in present-day nations and states — a list of religion by country articles
- Religion by country — contains links to articles and subcategories related to religion by country
- List of basic topics of religion — has major religious concepts and religion-specific topics
Notes edit
- ^ The Constitution of India Art 25-28. Retrieved on April 22 2007.
- ^ The Constitution (Forty-Second Amendment) Act, 1976. Retrieved on April 22 2007.
- ^ a b c "Tables: Profiles by main religions. DATA FILE (in Spreadsheet format)". Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved 2007-04-17. Please download the file (which is compressed by winzip) to see the data in spreadsheet.
- ^ T. Oberlies (Die Religion des Rgveda, Vienna 1998. p. 158) based on 'cumulative evidence' sets wide range of 1700–1100.
- ^ Rinehart 2004, p. 28.
- ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. xviii–xxi.
- ^ Radhakrishnan & Moore 1967, p. 227–249.
- ^ Chatterjee & Datta 1984, p. 55.
- ^ "The rise of Jainism and Buddhism". Religion and Ethics—Hinduism. BBC. Retrieved 2007-04-21.
- ^ a b c "Religion in India". Religion, webindia123.com. Suni Systems (P) Ltd. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
- ^ International Religious Freedom Report 2003. By the United States Department of State. Retrieved on April 19 2007.
- ^ BBC, BBC - Religion & Ethics - Christianity
- ^ "Parsi population in India declines". payvand.com. NetNative. September 7 2004.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ "The Bahá'ís of India". bahaindia.org. National Spiritual Assembly of the Bahá'ís of India. Retrieved 2007-04-18.
- ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Hindus" (PDF). Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
- ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Muslims" (PDF). Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
- ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Christians" (PDF). Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
- ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Sikhs" (PDF). Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
- ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Buddhists" (PDF). Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
- ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Jains" (PDF). Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
- ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions: Other religions" (PDF). Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
- ^ a b c "A snapshot of population size, distribution, growth and socio economic characteristics of religious communities from Census 2001" (PDF). Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. pp. 1–9. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
- ^ "Tables: Profiles by main religions". Census of India 2001: DATA ON RELIGION. Office of the Registrar General, India. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
- ^ Swami Praveen (1–14 November, 1997). "Protecting secularism and federal fair play". Frontline. 14 (22). Retrieved 2007-04-17.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Constitution of India-Part IV Article 44 Directive Principles of State Policy
- ^ Iyer, V.R. Krishna (September 6 2003). "Unifying personal laws". Opinion. The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-04-19.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Lavakare, Arvind (May 21 2002). "Where's the Uniform Civil Code?". rediff.com. Rediff.com India Limited. Retrieved 2007-04-19.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ "India, Republic of". Legal Profiles, Islamic Family Law. Emory Law School. 2002. Retrieved 2007-04-17.
- ^ "Religious Life". Religions of India. Global Peace Works. Retrieved 2007-04-19.
- ^ a b c d "Domestic Worship". Country Studies. The Library of Congress. September 1995. Retrieved 2007-04-19.
- ^ Sachar nails madrasa myth: Only 4% Muslim kids go there. The Indian Express. Retrieved on April 21 [[2007].
- ^ Yadav, Yogendra (August 14 2006). "The food habits of a nation". hinduonnet.com. The Hindu. Retrieved 2007-04-21.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help); Unknown parameter|coauthors=ignored (|author=suggested) (help) - ^ a b "Life-Cycle Rituals". Country Studies: India. The Library of Congress. September 1995. Retrieved 2007-04-19.
- ^ Banerjee, Suresh Chandra. "Shraddha". Banglapedia. Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
- ^ a b c d e "Islamic Traditions in South Asia". Country Studies: India. The Library of Congress. September 1995. Retrieved 2007-04-19.
- ^ "Muharram". Festivals. High Commission of India, London. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
- ^ "Dalits in conversion ceremony". BBC news. BBC. 14 October 2006. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ "Constitution doesn't permit forced conversions : Naqvi". BJP Today. 15 (9). May 1–15, 2006. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
- ^ Misra, Satish (March 14 2004). "Congress has lost its secular credentials: Arif Khan". .tribuneindia.com. The Tribune Trust. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Upadhyay, R (15 March 2004). "THE GRAMMAR OF VOTE BANK POLITICS-The Muslim Community has suffered". Papers. South Asia Analysis Group. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Times News Network (25 March 2002). "Togadia wants parties to stop 'vote bank politics'". indiatimes.com. Times Internet Limited. Retrieved 2007-04-20.
{{cite news}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)
References edit
- Chatterjee, S; Datta, D (1984), An Introduction to Indian Philosophy (8th ed.), University of Calcutta, ASIN: B0007BFXK4
- Radhakrishnan, S; Moore, CA (1967), A Sourcebook in Indian Philosophy, Princeton Univ Pr, ISBN 0-691-01958-4
- Rinehart, R (2004), Contemporary Hinduism: Ritual, Culture, and Practice, ABC-Clio, ISBN 1-57607-905-8
