User:Donald Trung/Government of the Nguyễn dynasty (June 2022 expansion)

This page serves as "the editing history" of the English Wikipedia page "Government of the Nguyễn dynasty#History" and is preserved for attribution.

• https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:MobileDiff/1095156514...1095426552  Published. --Donald Trung (talk) 08:55, 28 June 2022 (UTC) .

History

Establishment under Gia Long

After ascending to the throne the Gia Long Emperor adopted the organisational structure of the Revival Lê dynasty's government. From 1802 until 1906 the ministries of the government of the Nguyễn dynasty consisted of the Ministry of Personnel (吏部, Lại Bộ), Ministry of Revenue (戶部, Hộ Bộ), Ministry of Rites (禮部, Lễ Bộ), Ministry of War (兵部, Binh Bộ), Ministry of Justice (刑部, Hình Bộ), and the Ministry of Public Works (工部, Công Bộ), these were known together as the Lục Bộ (六部).

Minh Mạng's reforms

An imperial decree (諭, Dụ) of the Minh Mạng Emperor on the establishment of the Cabinet (內閣, Nội các) and the regulations of deliberation and supervision between the Cabinet and the Lục Bộ (六部).

The Minh Mạng Emperor's reforms transformed the Vietnamese bureaucracy from a military apparatus created under Gia Long associated with generals, under the direction of the Công Đồng (公同, "Council"), mainly through top-down orders into a highly centralised meritocratic system. Minh Mạng's reforms to the Southern Court would remain largely unchanged until the Bảo Đại Emperor's reforms in 1933.

The administrative system of the Nguyễn dynasty was thinly spread across the country as the capital city of Huế is around 700 km from Hanoi and around 1000 km from Gia Định, the two most important economic centres of the country and most populous cities. Meaning that the imperial government had to spread diverse functions such as management tools, including directories, demographics, taxes, information tools, and administrative data storage systems across a vast territory. In order to better coordinate and communicate between the vastly distant and different regions of the country the Minh Mạng Emperor set up government stations and communication systems throughout his realm.

After ascending the throne in 1820, all of Minh Mạng's actions during his first decade on the throne were to the administrative apparatus (especially bureaucracies) to be prepared to replace the "low-literate" (ít chữ nghĩa) military generals, from 1831 to 1834 these changes would be implemented on a national scale. One of his first reforms to change the militaristic nature of the government of the Nguyễn dynasty was to establish two specialised agencies for communicating between Huế and the regions, namely the Bưu Chính ty and the Thông Chính ty. Before these tasks were done by the Ministry of War.

At the same time, in the first year of coming to power, the Minh Mạng Emperor reorganised the bureaucracy of the imperial court by consolidating the different cabinets into the Văn thư phòng (文書房). In 1829 the Văn thư phòng was replaced with the Nội các (內閣, "Cabinet"). This was because Minh Mạng understood the way how the government of the Manchu Qing dynasty in China functioned and used them as a model for establishing the Nội các and the Cơ mật viện (機密院, "Secret Institute"), based on the Nội các and Quân cơ xứ (軍機處) of the Qing. In the centralised administrations of China and Vietnam, the Emperor theoretically holds absolute power in all decisions. But in reality, he relies on an intricate bureaucratic apparatus below him to provide him with information, gather data, and prepare all agendas.

Among the Minh Mạng Emperor's reforms was the increasingly close institutionalisation associated with the establishment of new government agencies. During the first 15 years of his rule, the Minh Mạng Emperor restructured the entire administration of the dynasty both at the central and local levels, basically codifying the political structures that the Nguyễn dynasty would use until its downfall in 1945. The Minh Mạng Emperor also increased the levels of supervision at every level of the bureaucracy, especially for the compiling, checking, copying, backing up, browsing, sending, and executing documents at every level of the Nguyễn administration.

The Minh Mạng Emperor also increased the direct influence of the monarch over the entire administrative system of the country and increased his power within the government.

This more complex system also meant that much more documents had to be created for communication between various agencies, the administrative divisions, and the imperial court in Huế. This increase in the number of government documents, especially imperial documents, shows an increase in the size and scope of the administrative system of the Minh Mạng period, associated with the expansion of the network of drafting and circulating documents. With most of the system centering on the Emperor, the Nội các, and the Cơ mật viện.

Creation of the Học Bộ

Main article: Ministry of Education (Nguyễn dynasty)

According to researcher Nguyễn Đắc Xuân, in 1907, the imperial court of the Nguyễn dynasty sent Cao Xuân Dục and Huỳnh Côn, the Thượng thư of the Hộ Bộ, to French Cochinchina to "hold a conference on education" (bàn nghị học chính) with the French authorities on the future of the Annamese education system. This meeting was also recorded in the work Hoàng Việt Giáp Tý niên biểu written by Nguyễn Bá Trác. The creation of a ministry of education was orchestrated by the French to reform the Nguyễn dynasty's educational system to match French ambitions in the region more.

On the 9th day of the 9th month of the 1st year of the reign of the Duy Tân Emperor the Học Bộ was established by imperial decree (諭, Dụ) to take over the functions relating to education from the Ministry of Rites.

While the Học Bộ was nominally a part of the Nguyễn dynasty's administrative apparatus, actual control was in the hands of the French Council for the Improvement of Indigenous Education in Annam (French: Conseil de Perfectionnement de l’Enseignement indigène en Annam; Vietnamese: Hội đồng Hoàn thiện giáo dục Bản xứ Trung Kỳ; Hán-Nôm: 會同完善教育本處中圻), which dictated its policies. All work done by the ministry was according to the plans and the command of the French Director of Education of Annam (監督學政中圻, Giám đốc Học chính Trung Kỳ). The French administration in Annam continuously revised the curriculum to be taught in order to fit the French system.

Regency (1925–1932)

On 6 November 1925 a "Convention" (Quy ước) was established after Khải Định's death that stated that while the sovereign is abroad a council (Hội đồng phụ chính) had the power to run all affairs of the Southern court, with the signing of the convention only regulations related to custom, favours, amnesty, conferring titles, dignitaries, among others are given by the emperor. Everything else is up to the French protectorate government. This document also merges the budget of the Southern court with the budget of the French protectorate of Annam and that all the meetings of the Council of Ministers (Hội đồng thượng thư) must be chaired by the Resident-Superior of Annam.

Thus, in this document, the French colonialists completely took over all the power of the government of the Southern dynasty, even in Trung Kỳ.

1933 reforms

The five high-ranking mandarins (Thượng thư) of the Nguyễn dynasty during the reign of the Bảo Đại Emperor (from left to right): Hồ Đắc Khải, Phạm Quỳnh, Thái Văn Toản, Ngô Đình Diệm, and Bùi Bằng Đoàn.

In 1933 the Bảo Đại Emperor issued a series of reforms, among them he reformed the affairs of the court, such as rearranging internal affairs and administration. He also gave up a number of customs that the previous Nguyễn dynasty Emperors had set forth such that subjects now did no longer have to bow down and could look up at the Emperor whenever he went somewhere and instituted that mandarins would have to shake hands with the Emperor instead of bowing down.

On 10 September 1932, the Bảo Đại Emperor issued Decree No. 1 abolishing the regency council and affirming the monarchy of Đại Nam and abolishing the regency.

Among these reforms was an imperial edict signed on 8 April 1933 that reshuffled the cabinet, as the Bảo Đại Emperor decided to govern himself and ordained five new well-known ministers from the academic and administrative circles. He retired Nguyễn Hữu Bài of the Ministry of Personnel (Bộ Lại), Tôn Thất Đàn of the Ministry of Justice (Bộ Hình), Phạm Liệu of the Ministry of War (Bộ Binh), Võ Liêm of the Ministry of Rites (Bộ Lễ), Vương Tứ Đại of the Ministry of Public Works (Bộ Công).

The firing of these high ranking mandarins of the government of the Southern dynasty caused a stir in public opinion at that time, these events caused the poet Nguyễn Trọng Cẩn to convey in detail the feelings of the Vietnamese people at the time through a poem using a unique set of homonyms as a play on words:

Năm cụ khi không rớt cái ình,

Đất bằng sấm dậy giữa thần kinh.

Bài không đeo nữa xin dâng lại,

Đàn chẳng ai nghe khéo dở hình.

Liệu thế không xong binh chẳng được,

Liêm đành chịu đói lễ đừng rinh.

Công danh như thế là hưu hỉ,

Đại sự xin nhường lớp hậu sinh.

The old seven ministries were replaced with only five ministries, namely the Ministry of Personnel (Bộ Lại) headed by Ngô Đình Diệm, the Ministry of Ceremonies and Fine Arts (Bộ Lễ nghi - Mỹ thuật) headed by Thái Văn Toản, Ministry of National Education (Bộ Quốc gia Giáo dục) headed by Phạm Quỳnh, Ministry of Justice (Bộ Tư pháp) headed by Bùi Bằng Đoàn, and the Ministry of Public Works (Bộ Công chính) headed by Hồ Đắc Khải. Later the Bảo Đại Emperor also established the Ministry of Finance and Social Relief (Bộ Tài chính và Cứu tế Xã hội).

The Ministry of Personnel was the only ministry that the Bảo Đại Emperor didn't reform as it would remain practically unchanged until it was renamed to the Ministry of Internal Affairs in 1942.

On 24 October 1933 the Bảo Đại Emperor signed an imperial decree stating that the Consultative Assembly of Tonkin now represents the government of the Southern dynasty in the French protectorate of Tonkin. Later in December 1933 the Emperor traveled to Tonkin to visit the people and tell them about his reforms.

By 1939 the number of ministries in Bảo Đại's cabinet would increase to 7.

Trần Trọng Kim cabinet

Main article: Empire of Vietnam

Following the Japanese coup d'état in French Indochina, the Bảo Đại Emperor issued an imperial edict revoking the protectorate treaty of 1884 restoring Vietnamese independence from France, but in reality the Empire of Vietnam was a Japanese puppet state. Trần Trọng Kim, a renowned historian and scholar, was chosen to lead the government as its prime minister.

On 7 April 1945, the Bảo Đại Emperor signed Decree No. 5 approving the composition of Trần Trọng Kim's new cabinet and on 12 May he dissolved the House of Representatives of Annam.

The Trần Trọng Kim cabinet included 10 ministries, namely the Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Bộ Ngoại giao), Ministry of Internal Affairs (Bộ Nội vụ), Ministry of Justice (Bộ Tư pháp), Ministry of Education and Fine Arts (Bộ Giáo dục và Mỹ nghệ), Ministry of Economic Affairs (Bộ Kinh tế), Ministry of Public Finance (Bộ Tài chính), Ministry of Public Works (Bộ Công chính), Ministry of Youth Affairs (Bộ Thanh niên), Ministry of Health and Relief (Bộ Y tế và Cứu tế), Ministry of Material Assistance (Bộ Tiếp tế).

Cut information

Cut, background information that doesn't apply to the 19th century

In the centralised administrations of China and Vietnam, the Emperor theoretically holds absolute power in all decisions. But in reality, he relies on an intricate bureaucratic apparatus below him to provide him with information, gather data, and prepare all agendas. For centuries, this powerful intermediary was known by the title of tể tướng (宰相), or the tương đương. This official is in fact the one who holds access to the entire information system of the state that the Emperor has access to, as well as conveys the intentions that this Emperor sends to the Six Ministries.

However, things changed in China at the end of the fourteenth century when a prime minister

Provincial reforms

The first is the increasingly close institutionalization associated with the birth of new agencies. During the first 15 years of his rule, Minh Mang restructured the entire administration of the dynasty both at the central and local levels, basically perfecting the political structures that the Nguyen dynasty would use until the end. the early years of the twentieth century. In TW, it was the emergence of the Secretariat (unification) and then the Cabinet and the Privy Council. In the locality is the system of provinces.

References

Sources

• Aubaret, Gabriel (1865). (Hoang-viet-luat-le) Annamite Code Vol. 1 & 2. Austrian National Library: Impr. impér.
• Smith, R. B. (1974). "Politics and Society in Viet-Nam during the Early Nguyen Period (1802-62)". The Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland (2): 153–169 – via JSTOR.
• Woodside, Alexander (1988) [1971]. Vietnam and the Chinese model: a comparative study of Vietnamese and Chinese government in the first half of the nineteenth century. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-93721-X.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Government of Nguyen Vietnam}} [[:Category:Kingdom of Vietnam]]

Sources to use

• https://www.archives.org.vn/gioi-thieu-tai-lieu-nghiep-vu/chau-ban-va-viec-phuc-dung-lich-su-chinh-tri-trieu-minh-mang-1820-1841.htm
  • <ref name="Châu-bản-và-việc-phục-dựng-lịch-sử-chính-trị-triều-Minh-Mạng-1">{{cite web|url= https://www.archives.org.vn/gioi-thieu-tai-lieu-nghiep-vu/chau-ban-va-viec-phuc-dung-lich-su-chinh-tri-trieu-minh-mang-1820-1841.htm|title= Châu bản và việc phục dựng lịch sử chính trị triều Minh Mạng (1820-1841).|quote= Đây là câu chuyện về một thế giới bị lãng quên của nền chính trị triều Minh Mạng. Phủ bụi hàng trăm năm, từ dưới mái hiên dột nát của toà Đông Các cho tới hành lang của Viện Đại học Huế, cuộc hành trình của các Châu bản triều Nguyễn không chỉ phản ánh số phận vương triều và sự chuyển dời thời đại mà bản thân chúng còn là chứng nhân tham dự trực tiếp vào những bước ngoặt thời đại. Bài viết này giúp tái hiện về một bước chuyển như thế của lịch sử: thời kỳ Minh Mạng và hé lộ một thế giới ẩn mình đằng sau các trang tài liệu lưu trữ.|date=5 June 2022|accessdate=25 June 2022|author= TS. Vũ Đức Liêm|publisher= Trung tâm Lưu trữ quốc gia I (National Archives Nr. 1, Hanoi) - Cục Văn thư và Lưu trữ nhà nước (State Records And Archives Management Department Of Việt Nam).|language=vi}}</ref>

• https://www.archives.org.vn/gioi-thieu-tai-lieu-nghiep-vu/chau-ban-va-viec-phuc-dung-lich-su-chinh-tri-trieu-minh-mang-1820-1841-tiep-theo.htm
  • <ref name="Châu-bản-và-việc-phục-dựng-lịch-sử-chính-trị-triều-Minh-Mạng-2">{{cite web|url= https://www.archives.org.vn/gioi-thieu-tai-lieu-nghiep-vu/chau-ban-va-viec-phuc-dung-lich-su-chinh-tri-trieu-minh-mang-1820-1841-tiep-theo.htm|title= Châu bản và việc phục dựng lịch sử chính trị triều Minh Mạng (1820-1841) (tiếp theo).|date=6 June 2022|accessdate=25 June 2022|author= TS. Vũ Đức Liêm|publisher= Trung tâm Lưu trữ quốc gia I (National Archives Nr. 1, Hanoi) - Cục Văn thư và Lưu trữ nhà nước (State Records And Archives Management Department Of Việt Nam).|language=vi}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 22:30, 25 June 2022 (UTC) .

• https://www.archives.org.vn/gioi-thieu-tai-lieu-nghiep-vu/bo-thanh-nien-dau-tien-va-duy-nhat-trong-lich-su-viet-nam.htm
  • <ref name="Chánh-phủ-Nam-Triều-Department-of-Youth-and-Sports">{{cite web|url= https://www.archives.org.vn/gioi-thieu-tai-lieu-nghiep-vu/bo-thanh-nien-dau-tien-va-duy-nhat-trong-lich-su-viet-nam.htm|title= Bộ Thanh niên đầu tiên và duy nhất trong lịch sử Việt Nam. - 09:21 PM 24/03/2022. - Thanh niên là lực lượng quan trọng đóng góp nhân lực, tài lực, trí tuệ trong rất nhiều hoạt động của đất nước, vì vậy chính quyền nhà nước qua các thời kỳ đều giành sự quan tâm đặc biệt đến lực lượng này. Tuy nhiên cơ quan quản lý nhà nước chuyên trách công tác thanh niên là Bộ Thanh niên thì không phải giai đoạn nào cũng có. Lịch sử nền hành chính Việt Nam trải qua các giai đoạn từ quân chủ cho đến nhà nước có hiến pháp sau này cho thấy hoạt động quản lý công tác thanh niên thường gắn với công tác văn hóa, giáo dục, vì vậy nhiệm vụ này thường đặt chung trong các Bộ quản lý về giáo dục văn hóa. Việc đặt riêng một Bộ có tên là Bộ Thanh niên hầu như rất hiếm, và thực tế chỉ xuất hiện trong một giai đoạn ngắn khoảng từ tháng 4 năm 1945 đến tháng 2 năm 1946.|date=24 March 2022|accessdate=25 June 2022|author= Nguyễn Thu Hoài|publisher= Trung tâm Lưu trữ quốc gia I (National Archives Nr. 1, Hanoi) - Cục Văn thư và Lưu trữ nhà nước (State Records And Archives Management Department Of Việt Nam).|language=vi}}</ref>
    •  Done. --Donald Trung (talk) 14:33, 25 June 2022 (UTC) .

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• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2022|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

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• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2022|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

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• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= February 2022|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

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• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2022|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

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December 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= December 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

November 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= November 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

October 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= October 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

September 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= September 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

August 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= August 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

July 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= July 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

June 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= June 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

May 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= May 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

April 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= April 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= March 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= February 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

January 2021.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2021|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2021|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= January 2021|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2021|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

December 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= December 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

October 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= October 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= October 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

November 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= November 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= November 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

September 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= September 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= September 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

August 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= August 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

• <ref name="Chinese-Coinage-Web-Site">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= August 2020|author= Vladimir Belyaev (Владимир Беляев)|publisher= Chinese Coinage Web Site (Charm.ru)|language=en}}</ref>

July 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= July 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= July 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

June 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= June 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= June 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

May 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= May 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= May 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref> No longer needed as I've imported THE ENTIRE WEBSITE, except for ancient Chinese piggy banks.

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate=May 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= May 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

April 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= April 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= April 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Kaogu">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate=April 2020|author= Credited as "NetWriter".|publisher= [[Kaogu]] (考古) - [[Institute of Archaeology, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences|Institute of Archaeology]], [[Chinese Academy of Social Sciences]] (中国社会科学院考古研究所)|language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="TransAsiart">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=14 September 2015|accessdate= April 2020|author= [[François Thierry (numismatist)|François Thierry de Crussol]] (蒂埃里)|publisher= TransAsiart|language=fr}}</ref>

March 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= March 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= March 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

February 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= February 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= February 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

January 2020.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= January 2020|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= January 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

December 2019.

• <ref name="">{{cite web|url= |title= .|date=|accessdate= December 2019|author= |publisher= |language=en}}</ref>

• <ref name="Primaltrek">{{cite web|url= |title=.|date=16 November 2016|accessdate= December 2019|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>

To use

• <ref name="HoreshQing">{{cite web|url= https://link.springer.com/referenceworkentry/10.1007%2F978-981-10-0622-7_54-1|title= The Monetary System of China under the Qing Dynasty.|date=28 September 2018|accessdate=29 July 2019|author= [[Niv Horesh]]|publisher= [[Springer Nature|Springer Link]]|language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="HoreshQing"/>

• <ref name="PrimalQing">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/chinesecoins.html#qing_dynasty_coins|title= Chinese coins – 中國錢幣 - Qing (Ch'ing) Dynasty (1644-1911)|date=16 November 2016|accessdate=30 June 2017|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="PrimalQing"/>

• <ref name="PrimaltrekKingOfQingDynastyCoins">{{cite web|url= http://primaltrek.com/blog/2013/01/08/the-king-of-qing-dynasty-coins/|title=The King of Qing Dynasty Coins.|date=8 January 2013|accessdate=8 January 2020|work= Gary Ashkenazy / גארי אשכנזי (Primaltrek – a journey through Chinese culture)|language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="PrimaltrekKingOfQingDynastyCoins"/>

• <ref name="CambridgeInflation">{{cite web|url= https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/bulletin-of-the-school-of-oriental-and-african-studies/article/hsienfeng-inflation/54A8F1ADDC871CC18F4DCFA828730DEB|title= The Hsien-Fêng Inflation (Published online by Cambridge University Press: 24 December 2009).|date=October 1958|accessdate=28 July 2019|author= Jerome Ch'ên|publisher= [[SOAS University of London]]|language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="CambridgeInflation"/>

• <ref name="Brill2015">[https://www.academia.edu/28400259/_Silver_Copper_Rice_and_Debt_Monetary_Policy_and_Office_Selling_in_China_during_the_Taiping_Rebellion_in_Money_in_Asia_1200_1900_Small_Currencies_in_Social_and_Political_Contexts_ed._by_Jane_Kate_Leonard_and_Ulrich_Theobald_Leiden_Brill_2015_343-395 “Silver, Copper, Rice, and Debt: Monetary Policy and Office Selling in China during the Taiping Rebellion,” in Money in Asia (1200–1900): Small Currencies in Social and Political Contexts, ed.] by Jane Kate Leonard and Ulrich Theobald, [[Leiden]]: Brill, 2015, 343-395.</ref>
  • <ref name="Brill2015"/>

• <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsDebinMa">{{cite web|url= http://eprints.lse.ac.uk/41940/1/WP159.pdf|title= Money and Monetary System in China in the 19th-20th Century: An Overview. (Working Papers No. 159/12)|date=January 2012|accessdate=26 January 2020|author= Debin Ma|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics]]|language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsDebinMa"/>

• <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan">{{cite web|url= http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/3307/1/Yan_In_Search_of_Power.pdf|title= In Search of Power and Credibility - Essays on Chinese Monetary History (1851-1845).|date=March 2015|accessdate=8 February 2020|author= Xun Yan|publisher= Department of Economic History, [[London School of Economics|London School of Economics and Political Science]]||language=en}}</ref>
  • <ref name="LondonSchoolOfEconomicsXunYan"/>.

Cấu trúc mạng lưới luân chuyển văn bản hành chính triều Nguyễn. Nguồn: Vũ Đức Liêm

• https://archives.org.vn:2001/files/ecm/source_files/2022/06/06/6-6-001-110446-060622-46.jpg

Minh Mạng background stuff

• Minh Mạng.
• Six Ministries of the Nguyễn dynasty.

Cơ mật viện (機密院) infobox

Cơ mật viện (機密院)

Viện cơ mật (院機密)
Cơ mật viện ấn (機密院印)
Map showing the institute marked as "5" in South-East corner.
Agency overview
Formed	1834
Dissolved	1945 (1945)
Jurisdiction	Nguyễn dynasty
Agency executive	Resident-Superior of Annam (1897—1945)

In 1834, Minh Mang's political project was expanded to Cambodia, the Siamese army attacked from the Vietnam-Laos border down to Ha Tien, and there were uprisings everywhere from Cao Bang to Gia Dinh. The increase in classified communications, military emergencies and rapid response to the war situation forced Minh Mang to look for a smaller and more flexible close-knit group. The Privy Council was born with part-time officials. This creation of Minh Mang compared to the Qing Dynasty has limited the manipulation of power and demonstrated the ingenious vision of the Vietnamese king in controlling the communication system, making decisions, keeping information confidential. information, and still ensure that the system is subject to mutual control and supervision.

Cơ mật viện (機密院) expansion

Source.

In the year 1834, Minh Mạng's political project (dự án chính trị) was expanded to Cambodia, the Siamese army attacked from the Vietnam-Laos border down to Hà Tiên province. At the same time there were widespread rebellions from Cao Bằng province to Gia Định province. These situations forced the Minh Mạng Emperor to work with a smaller and more flexible close-knit group as he needed to discuss classified communications, military emergencies, and rapid response to the war situation. This was the reason why the Cơ mật viện was established.