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User:Curlygirl897/Perennial crop

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Perennial Plants Associated Benefits and Potential for Midwestern Agriculture edit

Perennial Plants: Overview edit

Perennial plants are defined as: any plant which persists for several years, usually with new herbaceous growth from a part that survives from growing season to growing season. Trees, shrubs, all gymnosperms (cone-bearing plants), some herbaceous flowering plants, and vegetative ground covers all fit into the category of being considered Perennial plants.[1] A key feature of all perennial plants is having the ability to cease overall meristem activity. When this activity ceases a dormant state is also established during which the meristem becomes unable to respond to growth-promoting signals for an extended period of time, and then once this period is over it may resume growth as usual.[2]

 
Annual wheat vs perennial Kernza (root length comparison)

Defining characteristics : Perennial vs annual plants edit

  • Perennials may be defined as species which survive winter and go on to re-emerge in the next growing season by means of underground root or stem modifications. These modifications are what allow Perennial plants to survive from season to season.
  • Annuals are defined as: any plant that completes its life cycle in a single growing season.[3]In contrast to Perennial plant species, annuals complete their entire life cycle in one season. In annuals, flowering is associated with senescence and death of the whole plant, whereas Perennials flower repeatedly in consecutive years and go on to maintain vegetative development after flowering.[4]

Some of the structural modifications which Perennial species root systems have in contrast to annuals include:

  • bulbs, corms, tubers, or rhizomes.
  • Perennial plants also have larger and deeper root systems in comparison to annuals.

These root adaptations are what enable perennials to extend to resources located deeper in soil and store energy as well.[5]They are also what enable the above-ground portion of Perennial plant species to die down during the cold season and then regrow and emerge again in the next growing season.[1]

Potential uses/Benefits to Agriculture edit

Humans have been using the practice of domestication for breeding plants to possess favorable traits for centuries[6]. Through domestication physical traits such as: large fruit, high yield, color, and long shelf life are just some of the ones that many agricultural species have been bred to possess. However, while this practice has led to the cultivation of crop varieties which possess traits favorable to humans. This artificial process of selection which many domesticated annual species that are commonly used in agriculture have undergone, isn't necessarily beneficial to the ecosystems which they are cultivated in. Due to the growing need for an increase in global food production, domestication strategies have become centered on increasing crop yields, which has often been accompanied with the expense of reducing ecosystem services in ecosystems.[7] Traditionally, most of the species used for agriculture which promote high yields have been non-native and/or annual. Some of the issues associated with non-native annual species are that: They have not co-evolved with native pollinator species(making them not as beneficial), they aren't as efficient at combating soil erosion (due to having shorter root systems), and that they flower once producing only one harvest before needing to be replanted(thereby requiring more labor/energy input), among others. However, Perennial plants provide many ecosystem services in contrast which make them a great alternative to be used instead of or to supplement for annuals in agriculture. Some of the ecosystem services which Perennial plants are known to provide in contrast to annuals include:

  • Regulating or improving water supply and quality. (They do so by trapping and filtering runoff water, and promoting sedimentation of the suspended particles and the pollutants bound to them).[8]
  • Contributing to climate and pest control (By attracting beneficial insects which prey on harmful ones.[9][10])
  • Supporting nutrient cycling & soil formation (Evidence has shown that their root system modifications help with this process, especially with nitrogen fixation in perennial legume species[11][12])
  • Combating soil erosion (This is achieved through their long root systems which help hold soil in place[5][4])
  • Providing resources for native pollinators (Because they have co-evolved with native pollinators many native perennial species provide essential resources which they need)[8]
  • Reducing resource input (Reduced water and nitrogen fertilizer inputs with perennials. Perennial legumes and grasses resist drought by drawing water from deep within the soil.They also reduce need for nitrogen fertilizer due to them having beneficial interactions with nitrogen fixing bacteria[5][13][14])

Perennial Crops Species and Midwestern Agriculture edit

In the future more Perennial species are being considered for domestication in agriculture as well. A brief list of Perennial species already currently being considered or utilized for agriculture in the Midwestern region include:

 
Kernza field being harvested.

Kernza (Thinopyrum intermedium) edit

Also known as intermediate wheat grass, kernza was originally introduced from Eurasia in 1932 to be used as a feed crop for cattle. Now kernza is being domesticated and grown in the Midwest as a Perennial grain and food crop.[5]

Alfalfa (Medicago sativa) edit

Alfalfa is a Perennial Herbaceous species of legume. Alfalfa originated in southwestern Asia, and was first cultivated in Iran,

it has become a popular agricultural species[2]. Alfalfa has been used for cultivation in bi-cultures with other Perennial species where it may assist with nutrient cycling as well as increasing overall plot biodiversity[15].

Red Clover (Trifolium pratense L.) edit

Red clover is a Perennial legume species of European origin that has been used to aid in nutrient cycling, and to increase overall biomass when grown in bi-cultures.[16] It is widely used throughout eastern North America, and it is adapted to a wide range of soil types.

White Clover ((Trifolium repens)

White Clover is a perennial species of legume originating from Eurasia. It is similar to red clover in structure and function although not as resistant to cold weather.[7]

 
Rosinweed (Silphium integrifolium)
Rosinweed (Silphium integrifolium) edit

Rosinweed is a native perennial plant in the sunflower family that has been cultivated as an oil seed crop.[17]

Blue Wild Rye (Elymus glaucus)

Elymus glaucus is a species of wild rye which is known by the common name blue wild rye. It is a common grass species that is widespread in growth and native to North America from Alaska to New York to northern Mexico.[18]

Sainfoin (Onobrychis viciifolia)

Sainfoin is a perennial legume species native to Europe. It is known to be useful in attracting native wildlife/pollinators.[19]

Canada Wild Rye (Elymus canadensis L.)

Canada wild rye is a native perennial grass species. It is known to be useful for providing both nesting material, and seeds for granivorous bird species as well as small mammals. The species seeds are also edible and were once used as a food source by the Goshutes (a tribe of Western Shoshone Native Americans).[20]

Maximilian sunflower (Helianthus maximiliani)

The Maximilian sunflower is a native perennial prairie species of sunflower which produces many seeds and can be eaten by many livestock species. It is named after the naturalist Prince Maximilian of Wied-Neuwied, Germany, who led an expedition into the American West in the 1830s. [21]

American Licorice (Glycyrrhiza lepidota)

American licorice is a perennial native species that is beneficial to wildlife. The species is known for its medicinal uses as well, as its roots and/or leaves can be peeled and used to make tea for the treatment of diarrhea, and upset stomach.[22]

Perennial Plants and global warming: Future Implications edit

Perennial plants have been shown to supply other benefits to the environment outside of agriculture. For example the use of native perennial plants as ornamental species in urban cultivation and landscaping is beneficial. Diverse Perennial plant communities are able to store more carbon than annual ones.[23] Perennial species have been shown to provide an opportunity for mitigating or reducing the negative effects of climate change while sustaining their agricultural productivity. It has also been shown that Perennial plant communities may also enhance ecosystem resilience. Finally, perennial species provide stability and ability to adapt to projected future environmental fluctuations due to them possessing high amounts of genetic biodiversity.[24][25][26]

References edit

References section

  1. ^ a b "perennial | Definition, Plant, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-10-17.
  2. ^ a b Rohde, Antje; Bhalerao, Rishikesh P. (2007-05-01). "Plant dormancy in the perennial context". Trends in Plant Science. 12 (5): 217–223. doi:10.1016/j.tplants.2007.03.012. ISSN 1360-1385.
  3. ^ "annual | Definition, Plant, Examples, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 2022-10-17.
  4. ^ a b Albani, Maria C.; Coupland, George (2010-01-01), Timmermans, Marja C. P. (ed.), "Chapter Eleven - Comparative Analysis of Flowering in Annual and Perennial Plants", Current Topics in Developmental Biology, Plant Development, vol. 91, Academic Press, pp. 323–348, retrieved 2022-10-17
  5. ^ a b c d DeHaan, L. R., & Ismail, B. P. (2017). Perennial cereals provide ecosystem benefits. Cereal Foods World, 62(6), 278-281.
  6. ^ "domestication | National Geographic Society". education.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  7. ^ a b Foley, Jonathan A.; DeFries, Ruth; Asner, Gregory P.; Barford, Carol; Bonan, Gordon; Carpenter, Stephen R.; Chapin, F. Stuart; Coe, Michael T.; Daily, Gretchen C.; Gibbs, Holly K.; Helkowski, Joseph H.; Holloway, Tracey; Howard, Erica A.; Kucharik, Christopher J.; Monfreda, Chad (2005-07-22). "Global Consequences of Land Use". Science. 309 (5734): 570–574. doi:10.1126/science.1111772. ISSN 0036-8075.
  8. ^ a b Duchemin, Marc; Hogue, Richard (2009-05-01). "Reduction in agricultural non-point source pollution in the first year following establishment of an integrated grass/tree filter strip system in southern Quebec (Canada)". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. Temperate agroforestry: When trees and crops get together. 131 (1): 85–97. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2008.10.005. ISSN 0167-8809.
  9. ^ "Natural Pest Control: Attracting Beneficial Insects | Piedmont Master Gardeners". piedmontmastergardeners.org. Retrieved 2022-11-25.
  10. ^ A. K. Fiedler, D. A. Landis, Attractiveness of Michigan Native Plants to Arthropod Natural Enemies and Herbivores, Environmental Entomology, Volume 36, Issue 4, 1 August 2007, Pages 751–765, https://doi.org/10.1093/ee/36.4.751
  11. ^ Schipanski, Meagan E.; Drinkwater, Laurie E. (2012-08-01). "Nitrogen fixation in annual and perennial legume-grass mixtures across a fertility gradient". Plant and Soil. 357 (1): 147–159. doi:10.1007/s11104-012-1137-3. ISSN 1573-5036.
  12. ^ Fonte, Steven J.; Six, Johan (2010-06). "Earthworms and litter management contributions to ecosystem services in a tropical agroforestry system". Ecological Applications. 20 (4): 1061–1073. doi:10.1890/09-0795.1. ISSN 1051-0761. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  13. ^ Boincean, Boris; Dent, David (2019), Boincean, Boris; Dent, David (eds.), "Soil Fertility, Fertilization and Nutrient Cycling", Farming the Black Earth: Sustainable and Climate-Smart Management of Chernozem Soils, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 151–188, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-22533-9_7, ISBN 978-3-030-22533-9, retrieved 2022-11-25
  14. ^ Wang, Qi; Liu, Jinge; Zhu, Hongyan (2018). "Genetic and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Symbiotic Specificity in Legume-Rhizobium Interactions". Frontiers in Plant Science. 9. doi:10.3389/fpls.2018.00313/full#:~:text=legumes%20are%20able%20to%20form,be%20used%20by%20the%20plant.. ISSN 1664-462X. {{cite journal}}: Check |doi= value (help)
  15. ^ Tautges, Nicole E.; Jungers, Jacob M.; DeHaan, Lee R.; Wyse, Donald L.; Sheaffer, Craig C. (2018-08). "Maintaining grain yields of the perennial cereal intermediate wheatgrass in monoculture v. bi-culture with alfalfa in the Upper Midwestern USA". The Journal of Agricultural Science. 156 (6): 758–773. doi:10.1017/S0021859618000680. ISSN 0021-8596. {{cite journal}}: Check date values in: |date= (help)
  16. ^ Reilly, Evelyn C.; Gutknecht, Jessica L.; Tautges, Nicole E.; Sheaffer, Craig C.; Jungers, Jacob M. (2022-10-01). "Nitrogen transfer and yield effects of legumes intercropped with the perennial grain crop intermediate wheatgrass". Field Crops Research. 286: 108627. doi:10.1016/j.fcr.2022.108627. ISSN 0378-4290.
  17. ^ "Perennial Sunflower (Silphium)". The Land Institute. Retrieved 2022-10-31.
  18. ^ "Blue Wildrye, Elymus glaucus". calscape.org. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  19. ^ "Onobrychis viciifolia Sainfoin PFAF Plant Database". pfaf.org. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  20. ^ "Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - The University of Texas at Austin". www.wildflower.org. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  21. ^ "Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - The University of Texas at Austin". www.wildflower.org. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  22. ^ "Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center - The University of Texas at Austin". www.wildflower.org. Retrieved 2022-12-05.
  23. ^ Zan, Claudia S; Fyles, James W; Girouard, Patrick; Samson, Roger A (2001-08-01). "Carbon sequestration in perennial bioenergy, annual corn and uncultivated systems in southern Quebec". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. 86 (2): 135–144. doi:10.1016/S0167-8809(00)00273-5. ISSN 0167-8809.
  24. ^ Solomon, S., Qin, D., Manning, M., Chen, Z., Marquis, M., Averyt, K. B., ... & Miller, H. L. (2007). Contribution of working group I to the fourth assessment report of the intergovernmental panel on climate change.
  25. ^ Jackson, L. E.; Pascual, U.; Hodgkin, T. (2007-07-01). "Utilizing and conserving agrobiodiversity in agricultural landscapes". Agriculture, Ecosystems & Environment. Biodiversity in Agricultural Landscapes: Investing without Losing Interest. 121 (3): 196–210. doi:10.1016/j.agee.2006.12.017. ISSN 0167-8809.
  26. ^ Tilman, D., Hill, J., & Lehman, C. (2006). Carbon-negative biofuels from low-input high-diversity grassland biomass. Science, 314(5805), 1598-1600.
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