A Fixed Action Pattern is an ethological term describing an instinctive behavioral sequence that is highly stereotyped and species-characteristic. [1] Fixed action patterns are said to be produced by the innate releasing mechanism, a "hard-wired" neural network, in response to a sign stimulus or releaser. [1][2] Once released, a fixed action pattern runs to completion. [1]
This term is often associated with Konrad Lorenz, who is the founder of the concept. [1] Lorenz identified six characteristics of fixed action patterns. [3] These characteristics state that fixed action patterns are stereotyped, complex, species-characteristic, released, triggered, and independent of experience. [3]
Fixed action patterns have been observed in many species, but most notably in fish and birds. [1][2] Classic studies by Konrad Lorenz and Niko Tinbergen involve male stickleback mating behavior and greylag goose egg-retrieval behavior. [4][5]
Fixed action patterns have been shown to be evolutionarily advantageous as they increase both fitness and speed. [6] However, as a result of their predictability, they may also be used as a means of exploitation. [7] An example of this exploitation would be brood parasitism. [8]
There are 4 exceptions to fixed action pattern rules. [9] These include reduced response threshold, vacuum activity, displacement behavior, and graded response. [9]
Sign Stimulus vs. Releaser edit
Fixed action patterns are released due to certain external stimuli.[1] These stimuli are single or a small group of attributes of an object, not the object as a whole. [10] These attributes may include color, shape, odor, and sound. [1][2]
Exaggerated models of these attributes are called supernormal stimuli. [11] A supernormal stimulus leads to an exaggerated response. [11] Supernormal stimuli are more effective at releasing a response than a natural stimulus. [11]
An external stimulus that elicits a fixed action pattern is termed a sign stimulus if the stimuli emanates from the environment.[10] Whereas, a releaser emanates from one's own species. [10]
Characteristics of Fixed Action Patterns edit
There are 6 characteristics of fixed action patterns. [3] Fixed action patterns are said to be stereotyped, complex, species-characteristic, released, triggered, and independent of experience. [3]
Stereotyped edit
Fixed action patterns occur in rigid, predictable, and highly-structured sequences. [3]
Complex edit
Fixed action patterns are not a simple reflex. [3] They are a complex pattern of behavior. [3]
Species-Characteristic edit
Fixed action patterns occur in all members of a species of a certain sex and/or a given age when they have attained a specific level of arousal. [3]
Released edit
Fixed action patterns occur in response to a certain sign stimulus or releaser. [1]
Triggered edit
Once released, a fixed action pattern continues to completion, even when there are changes in the surrounding environment. [1]
Independent of Experience edit
A fixed action pattern is not learned. [3] This is known as a fixed action pattern is complete upon the very first release. [3]
Examples edit
Male Stickleback Mating Behavior edit
One example of fixed action patterns is the courtship and aggression behaviors of the male three-spined stickleback during mating season, described in a series of studies by Niko Tinbergen. [4] During the spring mating season, male sticklebacks ventrum turns red and they establish a territory to build a nest. [4] They attack other male sticklebacks that enter their territory, but court females and entice them to enter the nest to lay their eggs. [4] Tinbergen used models of sticklebacks to investigate which features of male and female sticklebacks elicited attack and courtship behavior from male sticklebacks. [4] Tinbergen's main findings were that male sticklebacks responded in a relatively invariant way and attacked even the most crude of models with a red belly, but in contrast, courted a model with a swollen belly. [4] He also found that when presented with both a real male stickleback and a crude model, if the model's stomach was more red, the stickleback would attack the model as opposed to the other real male stickleback. [4]
Greylag Goose Egg-Retrieval Behavior edit
Another example of a behavior that has been described as a fixed action pattern is the egg-retrieval behavior of the greylag goose, reported in classic studies by Niko Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz. [5] Like many ground-nesting birds, if an egg becomes displaced from the nest, the greylag rolls it back to the nest with its beak. [5] The sight of the displaced egg is the sign stimulus and elicits the egg-retrieval behavior. [5] First, the goose fixates its sight on the egg. [5] Next, it extends its neck over the egg. [5] Finally, it rolls the egg back to the nest using the underside of its beak. [5] If the egg is removed from the goose during the performance of egg-rolling, the bird will continue with the behavior, pulling its head back as if an imaginary egg is still being maneuvered. [5] It has been shown that the greylag will also attempt to retrieve other egg-shaped objects, such as a golf ball, door knob, or even a model egg too large to have possibly been laid by the goose itself (i.e. a supernormal stimulus). [12]
Evolutionary Advantages edit
Most behaviors which are both fixed action patterns and occur in more complex animals, are usually essential to the animal's fitness, or in which speed (i.e. an absence of learning) is a factor. [6] For instance, the greylag goose's egg-retrieval behavior is so essential to the survival of its chicks that the fitness of the parent bird is increased by the behavior being relatively invariant. [5] A stickleback will attack any male fish who enters his territory while the female is sexually receptive, reacting to their red color, while the female stickleback triggers behavior in the male resulting in the fertilization of her eggs. [4]
Evolutionary Disadvantages edit
Fixed action patterns are predictable, as they are invariable, and therefore can lead to exploitation. [7] Some species have evolved to exploit the fixed action patterns of other species by mimicry of their sign stimuli. [8] Replicating the releaser required to trigger a fixed action pattern is known as code-breaking. [13] A well-known example of this is brood parasitism, where one species will lay its eggs in the nest of another species, which will then parent its young. [8] A young North American cowbird, for example, provides a supernormal stimulus to its foster parent, which will cause it to forage rapidly to satisfy the larger bird's demands. [14] A nestling will provide higher levels of stimulus with noisier, more energetic behavior, communicating its urgent need for food. [14] Parents in this situation have to work harder to provide food, otherwise their own offspring are likely to die of starvation. [14]
Exceptions edit
There are 4 exceptions to fixed action pattern rules. [9] These include reduced response threshold, vacuum activity, displacement behavior, and graded response. [9]
Reduced Response Threshold edit
Fixed action patterns become easier to release as time increases between the last release. [9]
Vacuum Activity edit
After so long without being released, fixed action patterns are released in the absence of the sign stimulus or releaser. [15] Vacuum activity is demonstrated in courtship behavior of ring doves. [16][17] Male blond ring doves isolated from their own species will resort to courting a pigeon, then a human's hand, and finally expressing courtship activity alone in their box, if they are left alone for a long period of time. [16][17]
Displacement Behavior edit
Fixed action patterns may be performed that are irrelevant to the stimulus present. [18] This can be seen in sticklebacks. [18] Displacement behavior occurs when the fighting and mating urges are frustrated. [18] A male stickleback chasing another male stickleback stops where their two territories meet and dives to the bottom of the tank, picking something up. [18] This behavior resembles that of nest digging during mating season, but is not released by the proper sign stimulus. [18]
Graded Response edit
Fixed action patterns may vary in intensity instead of being triggered. [9]
References edit
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Páez-Rondón, Oscar; Aldana, Elis; Dickens, Joseph; Otálora-Luna, Fernando (2018-5). "Ethological description of a fixed action pattern in a kissing bug (Triatominae): vision, gustation, proboscis extension and drinking of water and guava". Journal of Ethology. 36 (2): 107–116. doi:10.1007/s10164-018-0547-y. ISSN 0289-0771.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b c Ronacher, Bernhard (2019-2). "Innate releasing mechanisms and fixed action patterns: basic ethological concepts as drivers for neuroethological studies on acoustic communication in Orthoptera". Journal of Comparative Physiology A. 205 (1): 33–50. doi:10.1007/s00359-018-01311-3. ISSN 0340-7594. PMC 6394777. PMID 30617601.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: PMC format (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h i j Studying animal behavior : autobiographies of the founders. Dewsbury, Donald A., 1939-. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. 1989, ©1985. ISBN 0226144100. OCLC 19670401.
{{cite book}}: Check date values in:|date=(help)CS1 maint: others (link) - ^ a b c d e f g h Tinebergen, N. (1952). The curious behavior of sticklebacks. Scientific American, 6, 22-26.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i Lorenz, K., Tinbergen, N. (1970). Taxis and instinct in egg-rolling response of the greylag goose. Studies in Animal and Human Behavior, 1, 328-342.
- ^ a b "Fixed Action Patterns | Protocol". www.jove.com. Retrieved 2019-10-24.
- ^ a b "Fixed Action Pattern - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics". www.sciencedirect.com. Retrieved 2019-10-24.
- ^ a b c Peer, Brian D.; Robinson, Scott K.; Herkert, James R. (2000-10-01). "Egg Rejection by Cowbird Hosts in Grasslands". The Auk. 117 (4): 892–901. doi:10.1093/auk/117.4.892. ISSN 1938-4254.
- ^ a b c d e f Schleidt, Wolfgang M. "How "Fixed" is the Fixed Action Pattern?". Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie. 36 (1–5): 184–211. ISSN 0044-3573.
- ^ a b c "Ethological studies of sign stimuli and motivation". www.flyfishingdevon.co.uk. Retrieved 2019-10-22.
- ^ a b c Tinbergen, Niko, 1907-1988. (1953). The herring gull's world; a study of the social behaviour of birds. London,: Collins. ISBN 0002194449. OCLC 1029697.
{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: extra punctuation (link) CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link) CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) - ^ Tinbergen, N. (1951). The Study of Instinct. Oxford University Press, New York.
- ^ "The Ecology of Avian Brood Parasitism | Learn Science at Scitable". www.nature.com. Retrieved 2019-10-24.
- ^ a b c Wickler, W. (1968) Mimicry in Plants and Animals. World University Library, London.
- ^ "The contributions of Konrad Lorenz | in Chapter 08: Animal Behavior and Cognition". www.psywww.com. Retrieved 2019-10-22.
- ^ a b Craig, Wallace (1918-2). "APPETITES AND AVERSIONS AS CONSTITUENTS OF INSTINCTS". The Biological Bulletin. 34 (2): 91–107. doi:10.2307/1536346. ISSN 0006-3185.
{{cite journal}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ a b Lorenz, Konrad Z. (1981). The Foundations of Ethology. Vienna: Springer Vienna. ISBN 9783709136713. OCLC 851389969.
- ^ a b c d e Tinbergen, N., Van Iersel, J. J. A. (1947). Displacement reactions in the three-spined stickleback. Behaviour , 1, 56-63. http://www.jstor.org/stable/4532675.