Forestation is either growing existing forests (proforestation)[1] or establishing forest growth on areas that either had forest or lacked it naturally.[2] In the first case, the process is called reforestation,[3] or reafforestation while the second is called afforestation.[4] Change in land use and natural disturbance can influence tree cover and complicate the distinction between different forms of forestation.
Massive afforestation has been proposed as a method to mitigate climate change, though its effectiveness in some regions is limited by the albedo effect.[5]
Afforestation edit
Afforestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees (forestation) in an area where there was no recent tree cover.[6] In comparison, reforestation means re-establishing forest that have either been cut down or lost due to natural causes, such as fire, storm, etc.[7] There are three types of afforestation: Natural regeneration, agroforestry and tree plantations.[8] Afforestation has many benefits. In the context of climate change, afforestation can be helpful for climate change mitigation through the route of carbon sequestration. Afforestation can also improve the local climate through increased rainfall and by being a barrier against high winds. The additional trees can also prevent or reduce topsoil erosion (from water and wind), floods and landslides. Finally, additional trees can be a habitat for wildlife, and provide employment and wood products.[8]
Several countries have afforestation programs to increase carbon dioxide removal from forests and to reduce desertification. However, afforestation on grasslands and savanna areas can be problematic. Carbon sequestration estimates in those areas often do not include the full amount of carbon reductions in soils and slowing tree growth over time. Also afforestation can negatively affect biodiversity through increasing fragmentation and edge effects for the habitat remaining outside the planted area.
Reforestation edit
Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged. The prior forest destruction might have happened through deforestation, clearcutting or wildfires. Two important purposes of reforestation programs are for harvesting of wood or for climate change mitigation purposes. Reforestation can also help with ecosystem restoration. One method for reforestation is to establish tree plantations, also called plantation forests. They cover about 131 million ha worldwide, which is 3 percent of the global forest area and 45 percent of the total area of planted forests.[9]
Globally, planted forests increased from 4.1% to 7.0% of the total forest area between 1990 and 2015.[10] Plantation forests made up 280 million ha (hectare) in 2015, an increase of about 40 million ha in the last ten years.[11] Globally, planted forests consist of about 18% exotic or introduced species while the rest are species native to the country where they are planted.
There are limitations and challenges with reforestation projects, especially if they are in the form of tree plantations. Firstly, there can be competition with other land uses and displacement risk. Secondly, tree plantations are often monocultures which comes with a set of disadvantages, for example biodiversity loss. Lastly, there is also the problem that stored carbon is released at some point.
The effects of reforestation and afforestation will be farther in the future than those of proforestation (the conservation of intact forests).[12] Instead of planting entirely new areas, it might be better to reconnect forested areas and restoring the edges of forest. This protects their mature core and makes them more resilient and longer-lasting.[13] It takes much longer − several decades − for the carbon sequestration benefits of reforestation to become similar to the those from mature trees in tropical forests. Therefore, reducing deforestation is usually more beneficial for climate change mitigation than reforestation.[14]
Many countries carry out reforestation programs. For example in China, the Three Northern Protected Forest Development Program – informally known as the "Great Green Wall" – was launched in 1978 and scheduled to last until 2050. It aims to eventually plant nearly 90 million acres of new forest in a 2,800-mile stretch of northern China.[15]
Proforestation edit
Proforestation is the practice of protecting existing natural forests to foster continuous growth, carbon accumulation, and structural complexity.[17][18] It is recognized as an important forest based strategy for addressing the global crises in climate and biodiversity.[18][19] Forest restoration can be a strategy for climate change mitigation.[20]: 37 Proforestation complements other forest-based solutions like afforestation, reforestation and improved forest management.
Allowing proforestation in some secondary forests will increase their accumulated carbon and biodiversity over time. Strategies for proforestation include rewilding,[21] such as reintroducing apex predators and keystone species as, for example, predators keep the population of herbivores in check (which reduce the biomass of vegetation). Another strategy is establishing wildlife corridors connecting isolated protected areas.[22][23]
References edit
- ^ Moomaw, William R.; Masino, Susan A.; Faison, Edward K. (2019). "Intact Forests in the United States: Proforestation Mitigates Climate Change and Serves the Greatest Good". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change (in Urdu). 2. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2019.00027. ISSN 2624-893X.
- ^ Nyland, R.D. Silviculture: Concepts and Applications. 3rd ed. 2016. p. 67. link.
- ^ "SAFnet Dictionary | Definition For [reforestation]". Dictionaryofforestry.org. 2008-08-13. Archived from the original on 2012-03-14. Retrieved 2012-02-17.
- ^ "SAFnet Dictionary | Definition For [afforestation]". Dictionaryofforestry.org. 2008-10-23. Archived from the original on 2012-03-14. Retrieved 2012-02-17.
- ^ Rohatyn, Shani; Yakir, Dan; Rotenberg, Eyal; Carmel, Yohay (2022-09-23). "Limited climate change mitigation potential through forestation of the vast dryland regions". Science. 377 (6613): 1436–1439. doi:10.1126/science.abm9684. ISSN 0036-8075. PMID 36137038.
- ^ Terms and definitions – FRA 2020 (PDF). Rome: FAO. 2018. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2019-08-09.
- ^ "Reforestation - Definitions from Dictionary.com". dictionary.reference.com. Retrieved 2008-04-27.
- ^ a b Lark, Rachel (2023-10-02). "The Importance of Afforestation". Environment Co. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
- ^ "Global Forest Resource Assessment 2020". www.fao.org. Retrieved 20 September 2020.
- ^ Payn, T. et al. 2015. Changes in planted forests and future global implications, Forest Ecology and Management 352: 57–67
- ^ FAO. 2015. Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. How are the world’s forests changing?
- ^ "Why Keeping Mature Forests Intact Is Key to the Climate Fight". Yale E360. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
- ^ Mackey, Brendan; Dooley, Kate (6 August 2019). "Want to beat climate change? Protect our natural forests". The Conversation. Retrieved 28 September 2020.
- ^ Bank, European Investment (2022-12-08). Forests at the heart of sustainable development: Investing in forests to meet biodiversity and climate goals. European Investment Bank. ISBN 978-92-861-5403-4.
- ^ Harrell, Stevan (2023). An Ecological History of Modern China. Seattle: University of Washington Press. ISBN 9780295751719.
- ^ "Proforestation in the Adirondacks and Statewide".
- ^ Moomaw, William R.; Masino, Susan A.; Faison, Edward K. (2019). "Intact Forests in the United States: Proforestation Mitigates Climate Change and Serves the Greatest Good". Frontiers in Forests and Global Change. 2: 27. Bibcode:2019FrFGC...2...27M. doi:10.3389/ffgc.2019.00027.
- ^ a b Di Sacco, Alice; Hardwick, Kate A.; Blakesley, David; Brancalion, Pedro H. S.; Breman, Elinor; Cecilio Rebola, Loic; Chomba, Susan; Dixon, Kingsley; Elliott, Stephen; Ruyonga, Godfrey; Shaw, Kirsty; Smith, Paul; Smith, Rhian J.; Antonelli, Alexandre (25 January 2021). "Ten golden rules for reforestation to optimize carbon sequestration, biodiversity recovery and livelihood benefits". Global Change Biology. 27 (7): 1328–1348. Bibcode:2021GCBio..27.1328D. doi:10.1111/gcb.15498. hdl:20.500.11937/88524. ISSN 1354-1013. PMID 33494123. S2CID 225324365.
- ^ Mackey, Brendan; Kormos, Cyril F.; Keith, Heather; Moomaw, William R.; Houghton, Richard A.; Mittermeier, Russell A.; Hole, David; Hugh, Sonia (1 May 2020). "Understanding the importance of primary tropical forest protection as a mitigation strategy". Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change. 25 (5): 763–787. Bibcode:2020MASGC..25..763M. doi:10.1007/s11027-019-09891-4. hdl:10072/394944. ISSN 1573-1596. S2CID 212681305.
- ^ IPCC (2022) Summary for policy makers in Climate Change 2022: Mitigation of Climate Change. Contribution of Working Group III to the Sixth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA
- ^ "Protecting 50% of our Lands and Oceans". One Earth.
- ^ "The natural world can help save us from climate catastrophe | George Monbiot". The Guardian. 3 April 2019.
- ^ Wilmers, Christopher C.; Schmitz, Oswald J. (October 19, 2016). "Effects of gray wolf-induced trophic cascades on ecosystem carbon cycling". Ecosphere. 7 (10). Bibcode:2016Ecosp...7E1501W. doi:10.1002/ecs2.1501.
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