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Racial Justice Activism in Southern Africa

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Introduction

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Student unrest on colleges campuses on the African continent has been widespread, but the motivations and outcomes of student action have not only differed from nation to nation, but from campus to campus as well. However, something that is shared is what historian Randi Rønning describes as “the phenomenon of university crisis”[1]. The following article explores student racial justice activism on university campuses within the eastern, western, and southern regions of Africa.

Background

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Universities are microcosms of larger local, national, and international communities[2],writes Solomon R. Benatar, Emeritus Professor of Medicine and Founding Director of the Bioethics Centre at the University of Cape Town. Around the time when some sub-Saharan African nations were being decolonized, universities were established in the new states as student protests were popular across university campuses[3], as Balsvik writes.

In this sense, “students have been a major driving force in the second liberation of the continent, that of democratisation”[4].

The Democratic Republic of the Congo / Zaire

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The University of Kinshasa

In the early 1990s, students among various other sections of the population of Zaire, present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo, criticized President Mobutu Sese Seko “who had initiated a political opening by eliciting public comment on his rule”[5], going so far as to refer to him as a thief.

Lovanium University

In the 1990s, student protests, in most cases, were limited to the area of the University campus, but in some cases, students take their demands straight to their government officials[6]. One such example occurred at Lovanium University where students "held an authorized demonstration on their campus and then began a mach toward the center of Kinshasa to present a list of their grievances to President Mobutu"[7]. In addition, when the Minister of National Education arrived at the university for a discussion on issues of national importance like the Popular Revolutionary Movement, the political party founded by General Mobutu, and other pressing economic policies, the students held an oral protest[8]. Moreover, the student protestors were met with "official resolve"[9] for their "discourteous demonstration"[10] and told that "the instigators [would] be pursued and punished"[11]. Students at the university also "charged that the country’s universities were vegetating and were subordinate to the dictates of 'neo-colonialism'"[12]. In 1969, student protests "were put down by riot police with a toll of six students dead and many injured"[13]. This came shortly after the Congolese Government implemented a "'hard line'[14] policy with this theme: 'Students owe total submission to the Government and the academic authorities'[15]"[16].

The University of Lubumbashi

In the early 1990s, President Mobutu later responded, striking back against the students by “unleash[ing] his presidential guard in a massacre of students at the University of Lubumbashi, just two weeks after announcing a return to political pluralism”[17].

South Africa

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The University of Cape Town (UCT)

In 1968, students at the University of Cape Town occupied UCT’s administration building for nine days where they protested “the university’s withdrawal of its plan to appoint a black candidate, Archie Mafeje, to a senior lectureship in anthropology”[18] after urging from the government[19]. The students at UCT then followed this action with their own organized demonstrations, in solidarity.

In 2015, Cape Town was again at the center of student activism with the #RhodesMustFall movement where they campaigned “to have a statue of the villainous-even-for-his-time British imperialist Cecil John Rhodes removed from campus”[20]. This campaign was unique in that it mobilized large groups of students across campuses across South Africa[21].

The University of Durban-Westville (UDW)

The South African Students’ Organization, also known as SASO, was founded in 1968[22] at the University of Natal-Black Section--a synonym for the University of Durban-Westville campus--by Steve Biko, a South African anti-apartheid activist. The group aimed to “spread its new ideology of Black Consciousness on and beyond the The following decade proved itself to be a staple for South African protest[23]. In response to the news of “[Onkgopotse Abraham] Tiro’s speech, his expulsion, the student protest and [The University of the North’s] heavy-handed response”[24], the student council at the University of Durban-Westville, in May of 1972, called for “an emergency mass meeting”[25] to publicly support the students at Turfloop[26]. In an excerpt from his speech, Tiro asserts:

“We black graduates, by virtue of our age and academic standing are being called upon to greater responsibilities in the liberation of our people. […] Times are changing and we should change with them. The magic story of human achievement gives irrefutable proof that as soon as nationalism is awakened among the intelligentsia it becomes the vanguard in the struggle against alien rule. Of what use will be your education if you can't help your country in her hour of need? If your education is not linked with the entire continent of Africa it is meaningless. […]

In conclusion Mr Chancellor I say: Let the Lord be praised, for the day shall come, when all men shall be free to breathe the air of freedom and when that day shall come, no man, no matter how many tanks he has, will reverse the course of events. God bless you all!”[27]

This demonstration of support was followed by a series of student-led boycotts of University lectures and food services on May 7th and 8th[28].

The University of Fort Hare

In 1968, students at the University of Fort Hare “protested against being disallowed from affiliating with the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS)”[29], an organization founded in 1924 and focused on challenging sexism and racialism. The sit-in organized by these students was the first to occur on the black campuses[30].

The University of Natal

In support of the the Students at Turfloop, the students at the University of Natal too began “an indefinite period of boycotting lectures” on May 12th of 1972[31].

The University of the North (Turfloop) / The University of Limpopo

The University of the North was founded in 1959 “explicitly to foster and educate a black elite that would serve in the bantustans”[32]. As the “second -largest black university in South Africa,...[Turfloop] had a proud history of student activism”[33]. In 1971, SASO recommended that Turfloop ‘Africanise’ its staff by hiring more Black staff and promoting current staff members[34]. No action was made on the part of the University[35]. Later in 1972, Turfloop’s administration “ordered that the SASO Manifesto and Declaration of Student Rights be removed from the diary distributed by the Turfloop SRC”[36]; however, the students responded by burning said diaries[37]. That same year, after giving a speech on how South Africa’s educational ‘system is failing’, Onkgopotse Tiro, the former president of the SRC, was expelled from the University. In response, students signed a petition and held a sit-in in order to rally support for Tiro; however, the University responded by threatening to expel the protesters, cutting off the students’ access to food, water, and toilets, and ultimately expelling the students and closing off the campus to prevent their return[38]. The protests also divided staff along racial lines, and is attributed for the formation of the Black Academic Staff Association (BASA) and a white academic staff association[39].

The University of Limpopo was formed in 2005, uniting the University of the North with the Medical University of South Africa[40].

The University of the Western Cape (UWC)

In solidarity with the Tiro scandal, students at the University of the Western Cape met to indicate their support by boycotting classes on Tuesday May 9th[41].

The University of Witwatersrand (Wits)

In February of 1970, following the detention of Winnie Mandela among others, the student representative council at the University of Wits joined the Black Sash in “a long series of public vigils…[which] were planned to continue until the detainees were either charged or released”[42]. The group, under the leadership of President Kenneth Costa, decided to organize a public march. Although they had already secured permission from the town clerk of Johannesburg, the march was shut down at the last minute when the magistrate asserted that there was “reason to apprehend that the public space [would] be seriously endangered by the assembly of a public gathering in a certain public place”[43], even though the group had already been given guidelines to prevent such apprehension[44]. Despite this, some students continued with their peaceful protest which ended at the John Vorster Square police headquarters as planned. However, students were still beaten and harassed, with 357 people arrested in the ‘first mass arrest of students...in the country’[45]. While the National Union of South African Students (NUSAS) praised the demonstration, Biko condemned it, insisting that it was a symbol of “the ‘disinheritance and dispossession’ of black agency implicit in the ability of white student leaders to claim to represent and lead the struggles of black students”[46]. In 2015, students against addressed the University’s administration, this time rallying together around the hashtag #FeesMustFall, drawing on the University of Cape Town’s #RhodesMustFall protests[47]. This time, students were furious over the increase in tuition prices that year. This movement quickly spread across the nation as students harkened to the words of Nelson Mandela’s African National Congress that “promised black people during the struggle for liberation that ‘the doors of learning and culture shall be opened’”[48].

The University of Zululand

During the graduation ceremony in the week following the release of the Alice Declaration in which SASO urged “all Black students [to] force the Institutions/Universities to close down by boycotting lectures...with effect from June 1st”[49], students at the University of Zululand picketed[50].

Zambia

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The University of Zambia (UNZA)

Recognizing the strength in numbers, students at the University of Zambia utilized both student workers and other self-employed students to “join in public condemnation of the corrosive effects of inflation on living standards”[51]. In June 1990, students again took the lead in public demonstrations as they “chanted multiparty slogans at riots in Lusaka in which a monument commemorating President Kaunda’s role in the nationalist struggle was set ablaze”[52].

Zimbabwe

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The University of Zimbabwe / University College of Rhodesia & Nyasaland / University of Rhodesia

The Chimukwembe student demonstration occurred on August 7th, 1973 at the University of Rhodesia[53] and is reported to have been the "most violent demonstration in the pre-independence history of the University"[54]. This demonstration was preceded by a series of student protests which began on July 28th of that same year. In response, the state arrested approximately 150 students and sentenced them to prison[55] for "terms ranging from three to nine months"[56]. In addition, the students were banned for three years from coming within twenty kilometers of the university, which was the nation's only university at the time[57].

In October 1989 students gathered together at the University of Zimbabwe in protest of “the issue of elite corruption and quickly escalated into a critique of the government’s use of state of emergency powers to quell dissent”[58]. Later, the government of Zimbabwe responded by closing the university and “briefly detain[ing] without trial student leaders and the head of the national congress of trade unions”[59].

  1. ^ Balsvik, Randi Rønning. "Student Protest--University and State in Africa 1960–1995." Forum for Development Studies 25.2 (1998): 301-25. T and F Online. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08039410.1998.9666087>.
  2. ^ Benatar, Solomon R. "Freedom of Speech, Academic Freedom, and Challenges to Universities in South Africa." Society 53.4 (2016): 383-90. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007%2Fs12115-016-0032-6>.
  3. ^ Balsvik, Randi Rønning. "Student Protest--University and State in Africa 1960–1995." Forum for Development Studies 25.2 (1998): 301-25. T and F Online. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08039410.1998.9666087>.
  4. ^ Balsvik, Randi Rønning. "Student Protest--University and State in Africa 1960–1995." Forum for Development Studies 25.2 (1998): 301-25. T and F Online. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/08039410.1998.9666087>.
  5. ^ Bratton, Michael, and Nicolas Van De Walle. "Popular Protest and Political Reform in Africa." Comparative Politics24.4 (1992): 419. JSTOR [JSTOR]. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/422153?seq=4#page_scan_tab_contents>.
  6. ^ Hanna, W. J. "Student Protest in Independent Black Africa." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 395.1 (1971): 171-83. SagePub. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/000271627139500116>.
  7. ^ Hanna, W. J. "Student Protest in Independent Black Africa." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 395.1 (1971): 171-83. SagePub. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/000271627139500116>.
  8. ^ Hanna, W. J. "Student Protest in Independent Black Africa." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 395.1 (1971): 171-83. SagePub. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/000271627139500116>.
  9. ^ Hanna, W. J. "Student Protest in Independent Black Africa." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 395.1 (1971): 171-83. SagePub. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/000271627139500116>.
  10. ^ Hanna, W. J. "Student Protest in Independent Black Africa." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 395.1 (1971): 171-83. SagePub. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/000271627139500116>.
  11. ^ Hanna, W. J. "Student Protest in Independent Black Africa." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 395.1 (1971): 171-83. SagePub. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/000271627139500116>.
  12. ^ Hanna, W. J. "Student Protest in Independent Black Africa." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 395.1 (1971): 171-83. SagePub. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/000271627139500116>.
  13. ^ Hanna, W. J. "Student Protest in Independent Black Africa." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 395.1 (1971): 171-83. SagePub. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/000271627139500116>.
  14. ^ Hanna, W. J. "Student Protest in Independent Black Africa." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 395.1 (1971): 171-83. SagePub. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/000271627139500116>.
  15. ^ Hanna, W. J. "Student Protest in Independent Black Africa." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 395.1 (1971): 171-83. SagePub. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/000271627139500116>.
  16. ^ Hanna, W. J. "Student Protest in Independent Black Africa." The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 395.1 (1971): 171-83. SagePub. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/pdf/10.1177/000271627139500116>.
  17. ^ Bratton, Michael, and Nicolas Van De Walle. "Popular Protest and Political Reform in Africa." Comparative Politics24.4 (1992): 419. JSTOR [JSTOR]. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/422153?seq=4#page_scan_tab_contents>.
  18. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  19. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  20. ^ Molefe, T.o. "Oppression Must Fall." World Policy Journal 33.1 (2016): 30-37. Web. 10 Jan. 2017.
  21. ^ Molefe, T.o. "Oppression Must Fall." World Policy Journal 33.1 (2016): 30-37. Web. 10 Jan. 2017.
  22. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  23. ^ Heffernan, Anne. "Black Consciousness's Lost Leader: Abraham Tiro, the University of the North, and the Seeds of South Africa's Student Movement in the 1970s." Journal of Southern African Studies 41.1 (2015): 173-86. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057070.2015.991575>.
  24. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  25. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  26. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  27. ^ Heffernan, Anne. "Black Consciousness's Lost Leader: Abraham Tiro, the University of the North, and the Seeds of South Africa's Student Movement in the 1970s." Journal of Southern African Studies 41.1 (2015): 173-86. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057070.2015.991575>.
  28. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  29. ^ Heffernan, Anne. "Black Consciousness's Lost Leader: Abraham Tiro, the University of the North, and the Seeds of South Africa's Student Movement in the 1970s." Journal of Southern African Studies 41.1 (2015): 173-86. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057070.2015.991575>.
  30. ^ Heffernan, Anne. "Black Consciousness's Lost Leader: Abraham Tiro, the University of the North, and the Seeds of South Africa's Student Movement in the 1970s." Journal of Southern African Studies 41.1 (2015): 173-86. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057070.2015.991575>.
  31. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  32. ^ Heffernan, Anne. "Black Consciousness's Lost Leader: Abraham Tiro, the University of the North, and the Seeds of South Africa's Student Movement in the 1970s." Journal of Southern African Studies 41.1 (2015): 173-86. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057070.2015.991575>.
  33. ^ Oxlund, Bjarke. "'BURYING THE ANC': Post-apartheid Ambiguities at the University of Limpopo, South Africa." Social Analysis 54.3 (2010): 47-63. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://search.proquest.com/docview/863832856?pq-origsite=summon>.
  34. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  35. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  36. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  37. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  38. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  39. ^ Heffernan, Anne. "Black Consciousness's Lost Leader: Abraham Tiro, the University of the North, and the Seeds of South Africa's Student Movement in the 1970s." Journal of Southern African Studies 41.1 (2015): 173-86. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057070.2015.991575>.
  40. ^ Oxlund, Bjarke. "'BURYING THE ANC': Post-apartheid Ambiguities at the University of Limpopo, South Africa." Social Analysis 54.3 (2010): 47-63. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://search.proquest.com/docview/863832856?pq-origsite=summon>
  41. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  42. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  43. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  44. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  45. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  46. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  47. ^ Molefe, T.o. "Oppression Must Fall." World Policy Journal 33.1 (2016): 30-37. Web. 10 Jan. 2017.
  48. ^ Molefe, T.o. "Oppression Must Fall." World Policy Journal 33.1 (2016): 30-37. Web. 10 Jan. 2017.
  49. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  50. ^ Brown, Julian. "SASO's Reluctant Embrace of Public Forms of Protest, 1968–1972." South African Historical Journal 62.4 (2010): 716-34. Web. 10 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02582473.2010.519940>.
  51. ^ Bratton, Michael, and Nicolas Van De Walle. "Popular Protest and Political Reform in Africa." Comparative Politics24.4 (1992): 419. JSTOR [JSTOR]. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/422153?seq=4#page_scan_tab_contents>.
  52. ^ Bratton, Michael, and Nicolas Van De Walle. "Popular Protest and Political Reform in Africa." Comparative Politics24.4 (1992): 419. JSTOR [JSTOR]. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/422153?seq=4#page_scan_tab_contents>.
  53. ^ Mlambo, A. S. "Student Protest and State Reaction in Colonial Rhodesia: The 1973 Chimukwembe Student Demonstration at the University of Rhodesia." Journal of Southern African Studies 21.3 (1995): 473-90. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057079508708458>.
  54. ^ Mlambo, A. S. "Student Protest and State Reaction in Colonial Rhodesia: The 1973 Chimukwembe Student Demonstration at the University of Rhodesia." Journal of Southern African Studies 21.3 (1995): 473-90. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057079508708458>.
  55. ^ Mlambo, A. S. "Student Protest and State Reaction in Colonial Rhodesia: The 1973 Chimukwembe Student Demonstration at the University of Rhodesia." Journal of Southern African Studies 21.3 (1995): 473-90. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057079508708458>.
  56. ^ Mlambo, A. S. "Student Protest and State Reaction in Colonial Rhodesia: The 1973 Chimukwembe Student Demonstration at the University of Rhodesia." Journal of Southern African Studies 21.3 (1995): 473-90. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057079508708458>.
  57. ^ Mlambo, A. S. "Student Protest and State Reaction in Colonial Rhodesia: The 1973 Chimukwembe Student Demonstration at the University of Rhodesia." Journal of Southern African Studies 21.3 (1995): 473-90. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/03057079508708458>.
  58. ^ Bratton, Michael, and Nicolas Van De Walle. "Popular Protest and Political Reform in Africa." Comparative Politics24.4 (1992): 419. JSTOR [JSTOR]. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/422153?seq=4#page_scan_tab_contents>.
  59. ^ Bratton, Michael, and Nicolas Van De Walle. "Popular Protest and Political Reform in Africa." Comparative Politics24.4 (1992): 419. JSTOR [JSTOR]. Web. 9 Jan. 2017. <http://www.jstor.org/stable/422153?seq=4#page_scan_tab_contents>.
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