G-dropping
editWhile synchronically, the realization of ing as /-ɪn/ is perceived as a phonetic phenomenon with a shift of unstressed /-ɪŋ/ to /-ɪn/, the latter is a actually a direct continuation of the Middle English suffix -inde (present participle).
The Modern English suffix -ing (present participle; gerund) is the result of merger of the two the Middle English suffixes -ynge (gerund) and -inde (present participle). In written English, the latter was increasingly replaced by the former in late Middle English. This process was completed in the 16th century. It is generally assumed that this was primarily a graphic convention: while in the prestigious varieties of southern England, the two suffixes indeed merged into /-ɪŋ/ (< -ynge), the form /-ɪn/ (< -inde) persisted in many dialects (e.g. Scots and northern English dialects/regiolects) and sociolects (e.g. Cockney) until the present day.[1]
[...]
Like in the US, usage of the /-ɪn/ variant is strongly linked to sociolinguistic factors in southern England, where it is (at least historically) linked with working-class accents. In northern England, social stratification only plays a minor role;[1] here, usage of /-ɪn/ is predominantly governed by grammatical function.[2]
Unlike in the US, the /-ɪn/ variant is generally not negatively perceived (e.g. as a marker of lack of competence in professional contexts) by British English speakers, even by speakers who do not employ the /-ɪn/ variant themselves.[1]
- ^ a b c Levon, Erez; Fox, Sue (2014). "Social Salience and the Sociolinguistic Monitor: A Case Study of ING and TH-fronting in Britain". Journal of English Linguistics. 42 (3): 185–217. doi:10.1177/0075424214531487.
- ^ Tagliamonte, Sali (2004). "Somethi[n]’s goi[n] on! Variable ING at ground zero". In Britt-Louise Gunnarsson et al. (eds.), Language variation in Europe: Papers from the second International Conference of Language Variation in Europe, ICLaVE 2, 390-403. Uppsala: Uppsala University Department of Scandinavian Languages.
Table
edit| East Timor | Timor(-)Leste | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 2010 – 2015 | 2762 (67%) | 1354 (33%) | (= 466 "Timor Leste" + 888 "Timor-Leste") |
| 2016 – 2020 | 5102 (43%) | 6685 (57%) | (= 1994 "Timor Leste" + 4691 "Timor-Leste") |
| 2018 – 2020 | 3047 (41%) | 4400 (59%) | (= 1070 "Timor Leste" + 3330 "Timor-Leste") |
| East Timor | Timor(-)Leste | ||
|---|---|---|---|
| 2021 | 714 (41%) | 1027 (59%) | (= 466 "Timor Leste" + 844 "Timor-Leste") |
| 2022 | 1075 (41%) | 1387 (5%) | (= 312 "Timor Leste" + 1075 "Timor-Leste") |
| "of East Timor" | "of Timor Leste" | |
|---|---|---|
| 2015 | 882 (53%) | 785 (47%) |
| 2016 | 836 (51%) | 794 (49%) |
| 2017 | 845 (51%) | 813 (49%) |
| 2018 | 885 (50%) | 873 (50%) |
| 2019 | 857 (46%) | 1010 (54%) |
| 2020 | 779 (45%) | 945 (55%) |
| 2021 | 712 (41%) | 1020 (59%) |
| 2022 | 583 (39%) | 921 (61%) |
Branches
editMamuju
editMandar
editPitu Ulunna Salu
editUnlike the languages in the other branches of Northern South Sulawesi (all of which have a simple five-vowel system), most Pitu Ulunna Salu languages have a six or seven-vowel system. Next to the five cardinal vowels /a, e, i, o, u/, there is a near-open front vowel /æ/ in Bambam, Aralle-Tabulahan, Ulumanda' and Pannei (spelled ä), cf. änä' "child". Ulumanda' and Pannei have a seventh vowel that is spelled ö by van der Veen and transcribed as /ɨ/ by Smith, e.g. Ulumanda mänö' "chicken".[1][2]
Toraja
editMassenrempulu
editThe languages of the Massenrempulu group are generally quite close to the Toraja languages, but show some convergence to the Buginese language spoken to the south and east of it, which can be seen in its lexicon, e.g. Duri, Buginese macca "clever" (cf. Toraja manarang), Duri, Buginese aje "foot" (cf. Toraja lette').[2]
---
- ^ Smith, Beverly Kean (1993). A Phonological Reconstruction of Proto-Pitu Ulunna Salu (M.A. thesis). University of Texas at Arlington.
- ^ a b van der Veen, Hendrik (1929). "Nota betreffende de grenzen van de Sa'dansche taalgroep en het haar aanverwante taalgebied". Tijdschrift voor Indische Taal-, Land- en Volkenkunde. 69: 58–96.
Vasconic languages
editVasconic languages may refer to:
- a hypothetical language family proposed in the Vasconic substrate hypothesis
- a proposed language family comprising all present and historical variants of the Basque language
| Trask (1997) | does not use the term "Vasconic" at all. Basque is a language isolate, and Aquitanian is an early form of Basque.[1] |
| Lakarra (2017a, 2017b) | does not use the term "Vasconic" at all, unless when referring to Vennemann's hypothesis. Basque is a language isolate, and Aquitanian is an early form of Basque.[2][3] |
| Vennemann (div. publ.) | "Vasconic languages" are a language family that includes Basque/Aquitanian and various hypothetical paleo-languages attested only as subtrates over much of western and central Europe. |
| Blasco Ferrer (2010) | proposes a genetic relationship between the pre-IE language of Sardinia and Basque. Similar to Venemann's Vasconic substratum hypothesis, but Blasco Ferrer never uses the term "Vasconic" languages.[4] |
| Bengtson (1999) | "Vasconic languages" include Basque, Aquitanian and X (other presumably closely related languages not further specified by Bengtson). The "Vasconic languages" in turn are related to North Caucasian, Burshaski.[5] |
| Bengtson (2008) | mentions a "Vasconic" language family, but it is spelled out throughout the text as "Vasconic (Basque)". I guess what he means is "Vasconic is solely represented by Basque in this study".[6] |
| Dieterlen & Bengtson (2016) | use "Vasconic" in Vennenmann's sense.[7] |
| Blevins (2018) | mentions "Vasconic" as an occasionally used synonym to "Euskarian", a term adopted from Gorrochategui for "the language family that includes Basque, Aquitanian and all potentially related languages...". She proposes a genetic link between Basque/Vasconic and Indo-European.[8] |
| Gorrochategui & Vallejo (2019) | use "Vasconic" as an adjective relating to the Vascones, thus not at at all relating to any language family.[9] |
References
- ^ Trask, Larry (1997). The History of Basque. London: Routledge.
- ^ Lakarra, Joseba A. (2017). "Basque and the Reconstruction of Isolated Languages". In Campbell, Lyle (ed.). Language Isolates. London: Routledge.
- ^ Lakarra, Joseba A. (2017). "Prehistoria de la lengua vasca". In Gorrochategui Iván Igartua, Joaquín; Igartua, Iván; Lakarra, Joseba A. (eds.). Historia de la lengua vasca. Vitoria-Gasteiz: Gobierno Vasco.
- ^ Blasco Ferrer, Eduardo (2010). Paleosardo. Le radici linguistiche della Sardegna neolitica (in Italian). Berlin: De Gruyter.
- ^ Bengtson, John D. (1999). "Review of The History of Basque by R.L. Trask". Romance Philology. 52 (2): 219–224. JSTOR 44741659.
- ^ Bengtson, John D. (2008), "Materials for a Comparative Grammar of the Dene–Caucasian (Sino-Caucasian) Languages." (PDF), Aspects of Comparative Linguistics, vol. 3, Moscow: RSUH Publishers, pp. 45–118
- ^ Dieterlen, Florent; Bengtson, John D. (2016). "Confirmation de l'ancienne extension des Basques par l'étude des dialectes de l'Europe de l'Ouest romane". Journal of Language Relationship (in French). 14 (1–2): 1–27.
- ^ Blevins, Juliette (2018). Advances in Proto-Basque Reconstruction with Evidence for the Proto-Indo-European-Euskarian Hypothesis. New York: Routlegde.
- ^ Gorrochategui, J.; Vallejo, J. M. (2019). "The parts of Hispania without epigraphy". In Sinner, Alejandro G.; Velaza, Javier (eds.). Palaeohispanic Languages and Epigraphies. Oxfod University Press. pp. 335–364.