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Location of Challenger Deep within the Mariana Trench and Western Pacific Ocean

The Challenger Deep is the deepest known point of the seabed in the Earth's hydrosphere (the oceans and seas), with a depth of 10,902 to 10,929 m (35,768 to 35,856 ft) by direct measurement from deep-diving submersibles, remotely operated underwater vehicles, and benthic landers and (sometimes) slightly more by sonar bathymetry.

The Challenger Deep is located in the Western Pacific Ocean, at the southern end of the Mariana Trench near the Mariana Islands group. According to the August 2011 version of the GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names, the Challenger Deep is 10,920 m (35,827 ft) ±10 m (33 ft) deep at 11°22.4′N 142°35.5′E / 11.3733°N 142.5917°E / 11.3733; 142.5917. [1] This location is in the ocean territory of the Federated States of Micronesia.

The depression is named after the British Royal Navy survey ship HMS Challenger, whose expedition of 1872–1876 made the first recordings of its depth. The high water pressure at this depth makes designing and operating exploratory craft difficult. The first descent by any vehicle was by Jacques Piccard and Don Walsh in the manned bathyscaphe Trieste in January 1960; unmanned visits followed in 1996, 1998 and 2009. In March 2012 a manned solo descent was made by film director James Cameron in the deep-submergence vehicle Deepsea Challenger.[2][3][4] Between 28 April and 4 May 2019, the DSV Limiting Factor completed four manned dives to the bottom of Challenger Deep.[5] Between 6 June and 26 June 2020, the DSV Limiting Factor added six completed dives.[6] The deep-sea submersible Fendouzhe (奋斗者, Striver) completed a crewed dive to the bottom of the Challenger Deep on 10 November 2020 with three scientists onboard whilst livestreaming the descent.[7][8][9] Between 1 March and 11 March 2021, the DSV Limiting Factor added four completed dives. As of April 2021 the list of people who descended to Challenger Deep comprises twenty-two people.

Topography edit

 
Sonar mapping of the Challenger Deep by the DSSV Pressure Drop employing a Kongsberg SIMRAD EM124 multibeam echosounder system (26 April–4 May 2019)

The Challenger Deep is a relatively small slot-shaped depression in the bottom of a considerably larger crescent-shaped oceanic trench, which itself is an unusually deep feature in the ocean floor. The Challenger Deep consists of three basins, each 6 to 10 km (3.7 to 6.2 mi) long, 2 km (1.2 mi) wide, and over 10,850 m (35,597 ft) in depth, oriented in echelon from west to east, separated by mounds between the basins 200 to 300 m (656 to 984 ft) higher. The three basins feature extends about 48 km (30 mi) west to east if measured at the 10,650 m (34,941 ft) isobath.[10] Both the western and eastern basins have recorded depths (by sonar bathymetry) in excess of 10,920 m (35,827 ft), while the center basin is slightly shallower.[11] The closest land to the Challenger Deep is Fais Island (one of the outer islands of Yap), 287 km (178 mi) southwest, and Guam, 304 km (189 mi) to the northeast.[12] Detailed sonar mapping of the western, center and eastern basins in June 2020 by the DSSV Pressure Drop combined with crewed descents revealed that they undulate with slopes and piles of rocks above a bed of primordial ooze. This conforms with the description of Challenger Deep as consisting of an elongated seabed section with distinct sub-basins or sediment-filled pools.[13]

Surveys and bathymetry edit

Over many years, the search for, and investigation of, the location of the maximum depth of the world's oceans has involved many different vessels, and continues into the twenty-first century.[14]

The accuracy of determining geographical location, and the beamwidth of (multibeam) echosounder systems, limits the horizontal and vertical bathymetric sensor resolution hydrographers can obtain from onsite data. This is especially important when sounding in deep water, as the resulting footprint of an acoustic pulse gets large once it reaches a distant sea floor. Further, sonar operation is affected by variations in sound speed, particularly in the vertical plane. The speed is determined by the water's bulk modulus, mass, and density. The bulk modulus is affected by temperature, pressure, and dissolved impurities (usually salinity).

1875 – HMS Challenger – In 1875, during her transit from the Admiralty Islands to Yokohama, the three-masted sailing corvette HMS Challenger attempted to make landfall at Guam, but was set to the west by "baffling winds" preventing them from "visiting either the Carolines or the Ladrones."[15] Their altered path took them over the undersea canyon which later became known as the Challenger Deep. One of their samples was taken within fifteen miles of the deepest spot in all of Earth's oceans. On 23 March 1875, at sample station number #225, HMS Challenger recorded the bottom at 4,475 fathoms (26,850 ft; 8,184 m) deep, (the deepest sounding of her three-plus-year eastward circumnavigation of the Earth) at 11°24′N 143°16′E / 11.400°N 143.267°E / 11.400; 143.267 – and confirmed it with a second sounding at the same location.[14] Depth soundings were by Baillie-weighted marked rope, and geographical locations were determined by celestial navigation (to an estimated accuracy of two nautical miles). The serendipitous discovery of Earth’s deepest depression by history’s first major scientific expedition devoted entirely to the emerging science of oceanography, was incredibly good fortune, and especially notable when compared to the Earth’s third deepest site (the Sirena Deep only 150 nautical miles east of the Challenger Deep), which would remain undiscovered for another 122 years.

1951 – SV HMS Challenger II – Seventy-five years later, the 1,140-ton British survey vessel HMS Challenger II, on her three-year westward circumnavigation of Earth, investigated the extreme depths southwest of Guam reported in 1875 by her predecessor, HMS Challenger. On her southbound track from Japan to New Zealand (May–July 1951), Challenger II conducted a survey of "the Marianas Trench between Guam and Ulithi," using seismic-sized bomb-soundings and recorded a maximum depth of 5,663 fathoms (33,978 ft; 10,356 m).[citation needed] The depth was beyond Challenger II's echo sounder capability to verify, so they resorted to using a taut wire with "140-lbs of scrap iron", and documented a depth of 5,899 fathoms (35,394 ft; 10,788 m).[16] In New Zealand, the Challenger II team gained the assistance of the Royal New Zealand Dockyard, "who managed to boost the echo sounder to record at the greatest depths."[16] They returned to the "Marianas Deep" (sic)[17] in October 1951. Using their newly improved echo sounder, they ran survey lines at right angles to the axis of the trench and discovered "a considerable area of a depth greater than 5,900 fathoms (35,400 ft; 10,790 m)" – later identified as the Challenger Deep’s western basin. The greatest depth recorded was 5,940 fathoms (35,640 ft; 10,863 m),[18] at 11°19′N 142°15′E / 11.317°N 142.250°E / 11.317; 142.250.[19] Navigational accuracy of several hundred meters was attained by celestial navigation and LORAN-A. Note that the term "Challenger Deep" came into use after this 1951–52 Challenger circumnavigation, and commemorates both British ships of that name involved with the discovery of the deepest basin of the world’s oceans.

 
Research vessel Vityaz in Kaliningrad "Museum of world ocean"

1957–1958 – RV Vityaz – In August 1957, the 3,248-ton Vernadsky Institute of Geochemistry research vessel Vityaz recorded a maximum depth of 11,034 metres (36,201 ft)±50 m (164 ft) at 11°20.9′N 142°11.5′E / 11.3483°N 142.1917°E / 11.3483; 142.1917 in the western basin of the Challenger Deep during a brief transit of the area on Cruise #25. She returned in 1958, Cruise #27, to conduct a detailed single beam bathymetry survey involving over a dozen transects of the Deep, with extensive examination of the western basin and a quick peek into the eastern basin.[20][21] Fisher records a total of three Vityaz sounding locations on Fig.2 "Trenches" (1963), one within yards of the 142°11.5' E location, and a third at 11°20.0′N 142°07′E / 11.3333°N 142.117°E / 11.3333; 142.117, all with 11,034 metres (36,201 ft) ±50 m (164 ft) depth.[22] The depths were considered statistical outliers, and a depth greater than 11,000 m has never been proven. Taira reports that if Vityaz's depth was corrected with the same methodology used by the Japanese RV Hakuho Maru expedition of December 1992, it would be presented as 10,983 metres (36,033 ft) ±50 m (164 ft),[23] as opposed to modern depths from multibeam echosounder systems greater than 10,900 metres (35,800 ft) with the NOAA accepted maximum of 10,995 metres (36,073 ft) ±10 m (33 ft) in the western basin.[24][25]

1959 – RV Stranger – The first definitive verification of both depth and location of the Challenger Deep (western basin) was determined by Dr. R. L. Fisher from the Scripps Institution of Oceanography, aboard the 325-ton research vessel Stranger. Using explosive soundings, they recorded 10,850 metres (35,600 ft) ±20 m (66 ft) at/near 11°18′N 142°14′E / 11.300°N 142.233°E / 11.300; 142.233 in July 1959. Stranger used celestial and LORAN-C for navigation.[26][27] LORAN-C navigation provided geographical accuracy of 460 m (1,509 ft) or better.[28] According to another source RV Stranger using bomb-sounding surveyed a maximum depth of 10,915 m (35,810 ft) ±10 m (33 ft) at 11°20.0′N 142°11.8′E / 11.3333°N 142.1967°E / 11.3333; 142.1967.[14] Discrepancies between the geographical location (lat/long) of Stranger's deepest depths and those from earlier expeditions (Challenger II 1951; Vityaz 1957 & 1958) "are probably due to uncertainties in fixing the ships' positions."[29] Stranger's north-south zig-zag survey passed well to the east of the eastern basin southbound, and well to the west of the eastern basin northbound, thus failed to discover the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep.[30] The maximum depth measured near longitude 142°30’E was 10,760 metres (35,300 ft) ±20 m (66 ft), about 10 km west of the eastern basin’s deepest point. This was an important gap in information, as the eastern basin was later reported as deeper than the other two basins. Stranger crossed the center basin twice, measuring a maximum depth of 10,830 metres (35,530 ft) ±20 m (66 ft) in the vicinity of 142°22’E. At the western end of the central basin (approximately 142°18’E), they recorded a depth of 10,805 metres (35,449 ft) ±20 m (66 ft).[31][failed verification] The western basin received four transects by Stranger, recording depths of 10,830 metres (35,530 ft) ±20 m (66 ft) toward the central basin, near where Trieste dove in 1960 (vicinity 11°18.5′N 142°15.5′E / 11.3083°N 142.2583°E / 11.3083; 142.2583, and where Challenger II, in 1950, recorded 10,863 metres (35,640 ft) ±35 m (115 ft). At the far western end of the western basin (about 142°11’E), the Stranger recorded 10,850 metres (35,600 ft) ±20 m (66 ft), some 6 km south of the location where Vityaz recorded 11,034 metres (36,201 ft) ±50 m (164 ft) in 1957–1958. Fisher stated: "…differences in the Vitiaz (sic) and Stranger–Challenger II depths can be attributed to the [sound] velocity correction function used…"[29] After investigating the Challenger Deep, Stranger proceeded to the Philippine Trench and transected the trench over twenty times in August 1959, finding a maximum depth of 10,030 metres (32,910 ft) ±10 m (33 ft), and thus established that the Challenger Deep was about 800 metres (2,600 ft) deeper than the Philippine Trench.[32] The 1959 Stranger surveys of the Challenger Deep and of the Philippine Trench informed the U.S. Navy as to the appropriate site for Trieste's record dive in 1960.[33]

1962 – RV Spenser F. Baird – The Proa Expedition, Leg 2, returned Fisher to the Challenger Deep on 12–13 April 1962 aboard the Scripps research vessel Spencer F. Baird (formerly the steel-hulled US Army large tug LT-581) and employed a Precision Depth Recorder (PDR) to verify the extreme depths previously reported. They recorded a maximum depth of 10,915 metres (35,810 ft) (location not available).[34] Additionally, at location "H-4" in the Challenger Deep, the expedition cast three taut-wire soundings: on 12 April, the first cast was to 5078 fathoms (corrected for wire angle) 9,287 metres (30,469 ft) at 11°23′N 142°19.5′E / 11.383°N 142.3250°E / 11.383; 142.3250 in the central basin. (Up until 1965, US research vessels recorded soundings in fathoms.) The second cast, also on 12 April, was to 5000+ fathoms at 11°20.5′N 142°22.5′E / 11.3417°N 142.3750°E / 11.3417; 142.3750 in the central basin. On 13 April, the final cast recorded 5297 fathoms (corrected for wire angle) 9,687 metres (31,781 ft) at 11°17.5′N 142°11′E / 11.2917°N 142.183°E / 11.2917; 142.183 (the western basin).[35] They were chased off by a hurricane after only two days on-site. Once again, Fisher entirely missed the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep, which later proved to contain the deepest depths.

1975–1980 – RV Thomas Washington – The Scripps Institution of Oceanography deployed the 1,490-ton Navy-owned, civilian-crewed research vessel Thomas Washington (AGOR-10) to the Mariana Trench on several expeditions from 1975 to 1986. The first of these was the Eurydice Expedition, Leg 8 which brought Fisher back to the Challenger Deep’s western basin from 28–31 March 1975.[36] Thomas Washington established geodetic positioning by (SATNAV) with Autolog Gyro and EM Log. Bathymetrics were by a 12 kHz Precision Depth Recorder (PDR) with a single 60° beam. They mapped one, "possibly two," axial basins with a depth of 10,915 metres (35,810 ft) ±20 m (66 ft).[37][38] Five dredges were hauled 27–31 March, all into or slightly north of the deepest depths of the western basin. Fisher noted that this survey of the Challenger Deep (western basin) had "...provided nothing to support and much to refute recent claims of depths there greater than 10,915 metres (35,810 ft) ±20 m (66 ft)."[39] While Fisher missed the eastern basin of the Challenger Deep (for the third time), he did report a deep depression about 150 nautical miles east of the western basin. The 25 March dredge haul at 12°03.72′N 142°33.42′E / 12.06200°N 142.55700°E / 12.06200; 142.55700 encountered 10,015 metres (32,858 ft), which pre-shadowed by 22 years the discovery of HMRG Deep/Sirena Deep in 1997.[40] The deepest waters of the HMRG Deep/Serina Deep at 10,714 metres (35,151 ft) ±20 m (66 ft) are centered at/near 12°03.94′N 142°34.866′E / 12.06567°N 142.581100°E / 12.06567; 142.581100, approximately 2.65 km from Fisher's 25 March 1975 10,015 metres (32,858 ft) dredge haul.

On Scripps Institution of Oceanography's INDOPAC Expedition Leg 3,[41] the chief scientist, Dr. Joseph L. Reid, and oceanographer Arnold W. Mantyla made a hydrocast of a free vehicle[42] (a special-purpose benthic lander (or "baited camera") for measurements of water temperature and salinity) on 27 May 1976 into the western basin of the Challenger Deep, "Station 21," at 11°19.9′N 142°10.8′E / 11.3317°N 142.1800°E / 11.3317; 142.1800 at about 10,840 metres (35,560 ft) depth.[43][44] On INDOPAC Expedition Leg 9, under chief scientist A. Aristides Yayanos, Thomas Washington spent nine days from 13–21 January 1977 conducting an extensive and detailed investigation of the Challenger Deep, mainly with biological objectives.[45] "Echo soundings were carried out primarily with a 3.5 kHz single-beam system, with a 12 kHz echosounder operated in addition some of the time," (the 12 kHz system was activated for testing on 16 January).[46] A benthic lander was put into the western basin (11°19.7′N 142°09.3′E / 11.3283°N 142.1550°E / 11.3283; 142.1550, on 13 January, bottoming at 10,663 metres (34,984 ft) and recovered 50 hours later in damaged condition. Quickly repaired, it was again put down on the 15th to 10,559 metres (34,642 ft) depth at 11°23.3′N 142°13.8′E / 11.3883°N 142.2300°E / 11.3883; 142.2300. It was recovered on the 17th with excellent photography of amphipods (shrimp) from the Challenger Deep’s western basin. The benthic lander was put down for the third and last time on the 17th, at 11°20.1′N 142°25.2′E / 11.3350°N 142.4200°E / 11.3350; 142.4200, in the central basin at a depth of 10,285 metres (33,743 ft). The benthic lander was not recovered and may remain on the bottom in the vicinity of 11°20.1′N 142°25.2′E / 11.3350°N 142.4200°E / 11.3350; 142.4200. Free traps and pressure-retaining traps were put down at eight location from 13 to 19 January into the western basin, at depths ranging from 7,353 metres (24,124 ft) to 10,715 metres (35,154 ft). Both the free traps and the pressure-retaining traps brought up good sample amphipods for study. While the ship briefly visited the area of the eastern basin, the expedition did not recognize it as potentially the deepest of the three Challenger Deep basins.[47]

Thomas Washington returned briefly to the Challenger Deep on 17–19 October 1978 during Mariana Expedition Leg 5 under chief scientist James W. Hawkins.[48] The ship tracked to the south and west of the eastern basin, and recorded depths between 5,093 metres (16,709 ft) to 7,182 metres (23,563 ft). Another miss. On Mariana Expedition Leg 8, under chief scientist Yayanos, Thomas Washington was again involved, from 12–21 December 1978, with an intensive biological study of the western and central basins of the Challenger Deep.[49] Fourteen traps and pressure-retaining traps were put down to depths ranging from 10,455 metres (34,301 ft) to 10,927 metres (35,850 ft) meters, the greatest depth was at 11°20.0′N 142°11.8′E / 11.3333°N 142.1967°E / 11.3333; 142.1967. All of the 10,900-plus m recordings were in the western basin. The 10,455 metres (34,301 ft) depth was furthest east at 142°26.4' E (in the central basin), about 17 km west of the eastern basin. Again, focused efforts on the known areas of extreme depths (the western and central basins) was so tight that the eastern basin again was missed by this expedition.[50]

  1. ^ "IHO-IOC GEBCO Gazetteer of Undersea Feature Names, August 2011 version". GEBCO. August 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
  2. ^ Than, Ker (25 March 2012). "James Cameron Completes Record-Breaking Mariana Trench Dive". National Geographic Society. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
  3. ^ Broad, William J. (25 March 2012). "Filmmaker in Submarine Voyages to Bottom of Sea". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
  4. ^ AP Staff (25 March 2012). "James Cameron has reached deepest spot on Earth". NBC News. Retrieved 25 March 2012.
  5. ^ "Deepest Submarine Dive in History, Five Deeps Expedition Conquers Challenger Deep" (PDF). fivedeeps.com. Retrieved 13 May 2019.
  6. ^ "Caladan Oceanic Revisits Challenger Deep in Month-Long Dive Series" (PDF). caladanoceanic.com. Retrieved 4 August 2020.
  7. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fendouze3 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  8. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fendouze1 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  9. ^ Cite error: The named reference Fendouze2 was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  10. ^ Nakanishi, Masao; Hashimoto, Jun (December 2011). "A precise bathymetric map of the world's deepest seafloor, Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench". Marine Geophysical Research. 32 (4): 455–63. Bibcode:2011MarGR..32..455N. doi:10.1007/s11001-011-9134-0. hdl:10069/25460. S2CID 55042876.
  11. ^ Cite error: The named reference Stewart, Heather & Jamieson, Alan. (2019) was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  12. ^ The Colbert Report, airdate: 2012 April 12, interview with James Cameron
  13. ^ Cite error: The named reference 20211021ORP was invoked but never defined (see the help page).
  14. ^ a b c Nakanishi, Masao (10 April 2011). "A precise bathymetric map of the world's deepest seafloor, Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench" (PDF). Marine Geophysical Research. 32 (4): 455–63. Bibcode:2011MarGR..32..455N. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.453.5784. doi:10.1007/s11001-011-9134-0. S2CID 55042876. Retrieved 30 March 2012.
  15. ^ Spry, W.J.J., "The Cruise of the Challenger", 1877, p. 273
  16. ^ a b Ritchie, G.S., "Challenger, the Life of a Survey Ship, Abelard-Shuman (1958), p. 225
  17. ^ Gaskell, T.F., "HMS Challenger’s World Voyage 1950–52, Part I. Atlantic & Pacific Oceans", International Hydrographic Review, Vol. XXX, no. 2 (2018), p. 119
  18. ^ Ritchie, G.S., "Challenger, the Life of a Survey Ship, Abelard-Shuman (1958), p. 229
  19. ^ Fujioka, K; et al. (18 May 2002). "Morphology and origin of the Challenger Deep in the Southern Mariana Trench". Geophysical Research Letters. 29 (10): 10–1–4. Bibcode:2002GeoRL..29.1372F. doi:10.1029/2001GL013595.
  20. ^ "Bathymetric Data Viewer". NOAA. [Single-Beam Surveys; Survey ID–VIT27, then zoom into Challenger Deep]
  21. ^ Hanson, P. P., "Maximum Depths of the Pacific Ocean", Priroda no .6 (in Russian), 1959, pp. 84–88.
  22. ^ Fisher, R. L., and H. H. Hess, Trenches, in The Sea, vol. 3, Fig. 2, p. 417, 1963
  23. ^ Taira, K., "Deep CTD Casts in the Challenger Deep, Mariana Trench", Journal of Oceanography, Vol. 61, p. 453, 2005
  24. ^ Nakanishi, M., "A precise bathymetric map of the world’s deepest seafloor, Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench" Marine Geophysical Research, Table 3, p. 13, 10 April 2011
  25. ^ "Bathymetric Data Viewer". NOAA. [zoom into Challenger Deep to 1 km]
  26. ^ "GEBCO Undersea Feature Names Gazetteer". NOAA.
  27. ^ Fisher, R. L., and H. H. Hess, Trenches, in "The Earth Beneath the Sea", vol. 3, 411–36, Table 1, 1963
  28. ^ Floyd, P.A., "Ocean Basalts", Springer, 1991, p. 12
  29. ^ a b Fisher, Trenches, The Earth Beneath the Sea, p. 416, 1963
  30. ^ Fisher, Trenches, "The Earth Beneath the Sea", p. 417, Fig. 2, 1963
  31. ^ "Loran-C Introduction". Hyperbolic Radionavigation Systems.
  32. ^ Fisher, Trenches, "The Earth Beneath the Sea", Table I, p 418
  33. ^ Fisher, Robert L., "Meanwhile, Back on the Surface," Marine Journal Technology, vol. 43, no. 5, Winter 2009, pp. 16–19
  34. ^ Fisher, Trenches, The Earth Beneath the Sea, Table I, p. 418 Table 1
  35. ^ "Physical And Chemical Data, PROA Expedition 12 April – 6 July 1962," SIO 66-16, p. 3
  36. ^ "Eurydice Expedition, Leg 8, R/V Thomas Washington, Informal Report 24–31 March 1975," SIO Geological Data Center, 27 June 1975.
  37. ^ "Eurydice Expedition, Leg 8, R/V Thomas Washington, Informal Report 24–31 March 1975," SIO Geological Data Center, 27 June 1975, Track Plot, page four
  38. ^ "Survey Identifier: ERDC08WT". Continental Shelf Programme.
  39. ^ Fisher, R., "Eurydice Expedition Leg 08, Weekly Reports", Scripps Institution of Oceanography, 1975;
  40. ^ ERDC08WT-024D/SIO001559 [full citation needed]
  41. ^ "Survey Identifier: INDP03WT". Continental Shelf Programme.
  42. ^ INDOPAC Expedition, Leg 3, R/V. Thomas Washington Informal Report, SIO INDP03WT)
  43. ^ Indopac Expedition Leg 3 Weekly Summary J. Reid
  44. ^ Taira, K, "Deep CTD Casts in the Challenger Deep," Journal of Oceanography, Vol. 61, 2005, p. 450
  45. ^ INDOPAC Expedition, Leg 9, R/V. Thomas Washington Informal Report, SIO INDP09WT)
  46. ^ Cruise Report, INDOPAC Expedition, Leg 9
  47. ^ "Bathymetric Data Viewer". NOAA.
  48. ^ Geological Data Center at Scripps Institution of Oceanography (January 1979). "Cruise Report". MARA05WT Mariana Leg 5 – Cruise Report. Geological Data Center at Scripps Institution of Oceanography. doi:10.6075/J01J981F.
  49. ^ "Survey Identifier: MARA08WT". Continental Shelf Programme.
  50. ^ Yayanos, A.A. et.al, "Dependence of Reproduction Rate on Pressure as a Hallmark of Deep-Sea Bacteria," Applied and Environmental Microbiology, Dec. 1982, pp. 1356–61
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