Introduction
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Manifestations of rape culture
editAccording to Michael Parenti, rape culture manifests through the global acceptance of rapes as an everyday occurrence, and even a male prerogative. It is exacerbated by police apathy in handling rape cases, as well as victim blaming, reluctance by the authorities to go against patriarchial cultural norms and practices, as well as fears of stigmatization from rape victims and their families[1]. Sociologists posit that rape culture links nonconsensual sex to the cultural fabric of a society, where patriarchial world views, laced with mysoginy and gender inequality, are passed from generation to generation, leading to widespread social and institutional acceptance of rape. In a rape culture, women are conditioned to assume responsibility for male sexuality, and gender roles are socially constructed and enforced on women through fear[2]. Feminists and sexual activists conceptualize rape cultures that encourage gender violence, as well as perpetuate 'rape myths', ranging from treating rape as merely 'rough sex' to blaming the victim for inviting rape. Such 'rape myths' are social messages that command women to assume pre-defined gender roles concerning sexual behavior. [3]. In addition, rape culture can manifest when third parties separate the violence from the general reputation and character of the perpetrators.[4] According to political scientist Iris Marion Young, victims in rape cultures live in fear of random acts of oppressive sexual violence that are intended to damage or humiliate the victim[5]. Others link rape culture with modernisation and industrialisation, arguing that pre-industrial societies tend to be 'rape free' cultures, since the lower status of women in these societies give them some immunity from sexual violence. In industrial rape cultures, women emerge from their homebound roles and make their presence felt in the workplace and other areas traditionally dominated by men, increasing male insecurities that lead to them using rape as a countering method[6][7]. Feminists also link rape culture to the widespread distribution of pornography, which is seen as an expression of a rape culture that objectifies women. The fusion of several pornographic motifs are seen in the accounts of rapists.[6] Others also link rape culture to environmental insecutiries, where men objectify women as part of their struggle to control their immediate environment. It is also linked to gender segregation, and the belief that rape proves masculinity.[8] Other manifestations of rape culture include denial of widespread rape [9], institutional apathy towards the problem of rape[10], minimization of rape cases by government officials[9][10][11], and excusing rapists as social anomalies[9][10].
References
edit- ^ Parenti, Michael (2005). The Cultural Struggle. New York: Seven Stories Press. pp. 71–78. ISBN 9781583227046.
{{cite book}}:|access-date=requires|url=(help); Check date values in:|accessdate=and|year=(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ Ritzer, George; Ryan, J. Michael (3 December 2010). The Concise Encyclopedia of Sociology. John Wiley & Sons. p. 493. ISBN 978-1-4443-9264-7.
- ^ Nicoletti, John; Spencer-Thomas, Sally; Bollinger, Christopher (2009). Violence Goes to College: The Authoritative Guide to Prevention and Intervention. Charles C Thomas Publisher. p. 134. ISBN 978-0-398-07910-9.
- ^ Pennington, Louise (2 February 2013). "Perpetuating Rape Culture: Polanski and the Privileges of 'Fame'". The Huffington Post. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ Heldke, Lisa; O'Connor, Peg (2004). Oppression, Privilege, & Resistance. Boston: McGraw Hill.
{{cite book}}: Check date values in:|year=(help)CS1 maint: year (link) - ^ a b Odem, Mary E.; Clay-Warner, Jody (1998). Confronting Rape and Sexual Assault. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 111. ISBN 978-0-8420-2599-7.
- ^ Lippmann-Blumen, Jean; Bernard, Jessie (1979). Sex roles and social policy. London: Sage Studies in International Sociology. pp. 113–142.
- ^ Ryle, Robyn (2011). Questioning Gender: A Sociological Exploration. Pine Forge Press. ISBN 978-1-4129-6594-1.
- ^ a b c Valenti, Jessica (January 4, 2013). "America's Rape Problem: We Refuse to Admit That There Is One". The Nation. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
- ^ a b c
Sparks, Hannah (January 22, 2013). "Steubenville case highlights U.S. rape culture". The Daily Collegian. Retrieved 4 February 2013.
{{cite web}}: Check date values in:|date=(help) - ^ Baxi, Upendra (2002). "THE SECOND GUJARAT CATASTROPHE". Economic and Political Weekly. 37 (34): 3519–3531. Retrieved 22 May 2012.
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