The Qatari-Bahraini War (Arabic: الحرب القطرية البحرينية), also known as the Qatari War of Independence (Arabic: حرب الاستقلال القطرية), was an armed conflict that took place in 1867 and 1868 in the Persian Gulf. The conflict pitted Bahrain and Abu Dhabi against Qatar. The conflict was the most flagrant violation of the 1835 maritime truce, requiring British intervention.[2] The two emirates agreed to a truce, mediated by the United Kingdom, which led to Britain recognizing the Al-Thani family of Qatar as the semi-independent ruler of Qatar. The conflict resulted in wide-scale destruction in both emirates.
| Qatari-Bahraini War | |||||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Map of Bahrain in 1849 | |||||||||
| |||||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||||
 Qatar |
 Bahrain Abu Dhabi (1867) | ||||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||||
|
Muhammad bin Thani |
Muhammad Khalifa Ali bin Khalifa Ahmed bin Mohammed † Zayed bin Khalifa | ||||||||
| Strength | |||||||||
|
Unknown |
1867: 700 men 24 dhows 2,000 men 70 dhows | ||||||||
| Casualties and losses | |||||||||
| Unknown | Unknown | ||||||||
Background
editThe 1835 maritime truce was agreed among individual Arab emirates such as Abu Dhabi, Sharjah, the rest of the Trucial States as well as Bahrain and Oman. The truce was supervised by the British Royal Navy (notably the Bombay Marine).[3] In order to enforce a pre-existing peace treaty (the General Maritime Treaty of 1820), the Bombay Marine deployed squadrons to the Arabian Gulf, based in Qeshm Island. The treaty prohibited piracy in the Persian Gulf but it did not outlaw maritime warfare, as a result, the British acted differently towards pirates who attacked ships hoisting a British flag (these pirates were deported to Bombay to be tried) and those who attacked other parties' ships (the pirates would then be handed over to the country in question).[3] In 1835, a loose coalition of Abu Dhabi, Ajman, Sharjah and Ras al-Khaimah ships began to harass and plunder vessels belonging to Oman. Britain intervened when two British flagged ships were plundered by Abu Dhabi. The Bombay Marine was dispatched and on 16 April 1835, a decisive victory for the British was won, leaving much of the Abu Dhabi vessels in ruins.[3]
The 1835 truce initially started as a British-sponsored six-month truce during the pearling season, and was successful. It was renewed willingly by the Sheikhs for another eight months. The truce would then be renewed annually until 1843 when Britain proposed a 10-year truce, which the Sheikhs agreed to.[3] During the peace, the Arab emirates of the Arabian Gulf experienced an economic boom, hence why, in 1853, when Britain proposed a permanent peace, the Trucial States agreed.[3]
Chronology
editPrelude
editIn 1850s and 60s, the relations between Qatar and Bahrain deteriorated with a series of disputes,[2] beginning with the Battle of Mesaimeer in June 1851 when Qatari tribes switched allegiances from the Bahrainis to Faisal bin Turki of the Emirate of Nejd.[4] The next month, a peace agreement was reached which saw dominion over Qatar returned to the Bahrainis in exchange for an annual zakat paid to the Wahhabi ruler.[5] The battle created political enmity between Qatar and Bahrain which contributed to the start of the war.[6] The antagonism between the Qataris and Bahrainis persisted, exacerbated by the Al Khalifa's presumption that their annual tribute of 4,000 riyals to the Wahhabis had effectively purchased Qatar and its tribes. They appointed Ahmed bin Mohammed Al Khalifa as their representative in Qatar. Despite his marital ties to the Al Thani family, Ahmed's harsh and imperious treatment of the Qataris engendered widespread resentment.[7]
Al Wakrah Incident
editHostilities emerged when, in 1866, Bahrain arrested a Qatari Bedouin of the Na'im tribe in Al Wakrah market and deported him to Bahrain in what would be colloquially referred to as the "Al Wakrah Incident".[8] The caravan, preparing for the customary pearl diving expedition, was attacked and its goods confiscated. When resistance was offered, the Na'im leader, Ali bin Thamer, was apprehended and sent to Bahrain in chains. He was incarcerated upon his arrival.[7]
In 1867, the tribal elders appealed to Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani for assistance, who then mobilized a general levy of Qatari forces and marched on Al Wakrah, seeking to apprehend the Bahraini representative Ahmed bin Mohammed, who took shelter in Al Wakrah Fort. The besieging forces intensified their efforts to the point where they nearly captured the fortress.[7] Lacking sufficient defensive capabilities, Ahmed was compelled to flee to Al Khuwayr, a location in the northern part of mainland Qatar, from where he dispatched a message to the ruler of Bahrain reporting the events.[9]
Imprisonment of Jassim bin Mohammed
editAccording to the Qatari narrative, in an act of deception, the Al Khalifa then lured Jassim to Bahrain in 1867, by writing a letter admonishing the Bahraini representative and assuring Jassim that no ill will was harbored towards him.[7] He also released the Na'im chief, Ali bin Thamer.[7] However, upon Jassim's arrival, he was imprisoned. Following this, Muhammad Al Khalifa began assembling a naval fleet to raid Qatar, sparking the war.[10] Bahrain succeeded in gaining support from Abu Dhabi, as Doha and Al Wakrah have long been harbors of refuge for Omani seceders.[11]
Second Destruction of Doha
editThe conflict failed to pacify and resulted in an escalation between the two parties in the following year. In October 1867, the Bahraini Sheikh Muhammad Al Khalifa, sent his brother, Ali bin Khalifa, with a force of 500 men in 24 boats to attack Qatar. He was joined by a force of 200 men under Ahmed Al Khalifa. Additionally, Bahrain's ally Abu Dhabi sent 2,000 troops in 70 boats.[12] This contingent established a base in Ra’s Abū ‘Umrān, near Ar Ru'ays in northern Qatar, from which Bahraini and Abu Dhabi forces advanced towards Doha, the epicenter of the insurgency.[7] The attack on Qatar led to the sacking of Bida (Doha) and Wakrah.[2]
According to historical accounts, the assault on Doha was characterized by its suddenness and ferocity. As reported by Muḥammad ibn Kahlīfa al-Nabhānī in The Nabhani offering on the history of the Arabian Peninsula (1924): "They wielded their swords against the unsuspecting inhabitants, compelling them to flee, abandoning their homes and possessions. The population dispersed, and the town of Doha, then the capital of Qatar, was laid to ruin. This incident came to be known as the Second Destruction of Doha, occurring in 1283 AH (1866 CE)."[7]
A British record later stated "that the towns of Doha and Wakrah were, at the end of 1867 temporarily blotted out of existence, the houses being dismantled and the inhabitants deported".[13]
The primary instigator of these hostilities was identified as Ahmed bin Mohammed Al Khalifa. In the aftermath of the attack, he was pursued by remnants of the fleeing Al Na'im tribe. They eventually confronted him in the Battle of Hamrour, where Ahmed not only suffered defeat but also lost his life. The historian Al-Nabhani succinctly describes the outcome of this encounter: "The two groups dispersed equally," suggesting a mutually destructive engagement that left both sides significantly weakened.[7]
Battle of Al Damsah
editIn June 1868,[14] the Qataris attempted to launch a counterattack against the Bahrainis, however, they were defeated.[15] While en route to the Bahrain islands, they chanted:[7]
حُرِّم عليك الصلحِ منا |
Peace with us is forbidden to you |
Contemporary sources state the 1868 attack was particularly violent, with some 1,000 individuals killed and 60 ships destroyed.[2] A brief account of the battle written in 1933 by C.U. Aitchison, under-secretary of the British Raj, is as follows:[15]
As both the Bahrain and Abu Dhabi Shaikhs were bound by their engagements with the British Government to abstain from aggression of every kind by sea; to appeal to the British Resident as arbitrator; and to afford full redress for all maritime offences which could justly be charged against them or their subjects, steps were taken to exact reparation for these outrages. Before this could be effected the tribes of Qatar retaliated by an attack on Bahrain which proved unsuccessful; but in the naval action which took place a number of vessels were destroyed and great loss of life occurred.
Battle of Jebel Wakrah
editThe aftermath of the Battle of Damsah saw the Qatari forces execute a strategic withdrawal, prompting a pursuit by Bahraini troops to Jebel Al Wakrah on Al Wakrah's coastline. At this location, the Qatari contingent mounted a resolute defense, successfully encircling the Bahraini forces and capturing two of their commanders. The engagement concluded with a negotiated exchange of prisoners, following which Jassim bin Mohammed returned to his seat of power in Doha.[10]
Anglo-Bahraini agreement of 1868
edit
Prior to 1867, the British recognized Qatar as a Bahraini dependency.[2] Lieutenant Colonel Lewis Pelly, the British Resident in Bahrain, issued an ultimatum to the Bahraini Hakim, accusing him of violating the maritime law and demanding reparations of 10,000 Iranian Tomans.[16] On 6 September 1868, Ali al Khalifa effectively took control of Bahrain as hakim after Colonel Pelly appointed him,[17] after his brother Mohammed fled.[16]
The dispute led to the British recognizing the Al Thani for the first time as a semi-independent political unit in Qatar.[2] Lewis Pelly visited Al Wakrah, Qatar, where he met the sheikhs and signed the Treaty of 1868 with Muhammad Al Thani.[2] The treaty ended the maritime warfare.[2] As part of the treaty's conditions, Bahrain was forced to renounce claims of sovereignty on Qatari soil as well as accept several British penalties, most of which were financial.[16]
See also
editReferences
edit- ^ Smart, J.R. (2004). New Arabian Studies, Volume 6. University of Exeter Press. p. 54. ISBN 0859897060.
- ^ a b c d e f g h Crystal, Jill (27 January 1995). Oil and Politics in the Gulf: Rulers and Merchants in Kuwait and Qatar. Cambridge University Press. p. 30. ISBN 978-0-521-46635-6.
- ^ a b c d e Commins, David (2012). The Gulf States: A Modern History. I. B. Tauris. pp. 79, 80, 81. ISBN 978-1848852785.
- ^ Al-Ali, Khalid bin Ghanem (2024). الُهَُوِّيَة الَوَطنّيّة الَقَطرّيّة [Qatari National Identity] (PDF) (in Arabic). Ministry of Culture (Qatar). p. 60.
- ^ Rahman, Habibur (2006). The Emergence Of Qatar. Routledge. p. 69. ISBN 978-0710312136.
- ^ Al-Ali, Khalid bin Ghanem (2024). الُهَُوِّيَة الَوَطنّيّة الَقَطرّيّة [Qatari National Identity] (PDF) (in Arabic). Ministry of Culture (Qatar). pp. 64–65.
- ^ a b c d e f g h i "التاريخ يتكرر.. هكذا حاصرت أبوظبي والبحرين قطر قبل 150عاما" (in Arabic). Al Jazeera Arabic. 18 September 2018. Retrieved 19 July 2024.
- ^ Al-Ali, Khalid bin Ghanem (2024). الُهَُوِّيَة الَوَطنّيّة الَقَطرّيّة [Qatari National Identity] (PDF) (in Arabic). Ministry of Culture (Qatar). p. 77.
- ^ Al-Ali, Khalid bin Ghanem (2024). الُهَُوِّيَة الَوَطنّيّة الَقَطرّيّة [Qatari National Identity] (PDF) (in Arabic). Ministry of Culture (Qatar). p. 77.
- ^ a b Mitchell, Jocelyn Sage (July 2021). "Transnational identity and the Gulf crisis: changing narratives of belonging in Qatar". International Affairs. 97 (4). Oxford Academic: 929–944. doi:10.1093/ia/iiab013.
- ^ "'A collection of treaties, engagements and sanads relating to India and neighbouring countries [...] Vol XI containing the treaties, & c., relating to Aden and the south western coast of Arabia, the Arab principalities in the Persian Gulf, Muscat (Oman), Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier Province' [113v] (235/822)". Qatar Digital Library. Retrieved 12 January 2015.
- ^ "'Persian Gulf Gazetteer, Part I Historical and Political Materials, Précis of Bahrein [Bahrain] Affairs, 1854-1904' [14] (33/204)". qdl.qa. Retrieved 6 August 2015.
- ^ "'Gazetteer of the Persian Gulf. Vol I. Historical. Part IA & IB. J G Lorimer. 1915' [801] (956/1782)". qdl.qa. Retrieved 16 January 2015.
- ^ "Highlighted version of the Memorial of the Government of the State of Qatar". International Court of Justice. 30 September 1996. Retrieved 18 June 2024.
- ^ a b "'A collection of treaties, engagements and sanads relating to India and neighbouring countries [...] Vol XI containing the treaties, & c., relating to Aden and the south western coast of Arabia, the Arab principalities in the Persian Gulf, Muscat (Oman), Baluchistan and the North-West Frontier Province' [114r] (236/822)". Qatar Digital Library. Retrieved 18 July 2024.
- ^ a b c Reports of Judgments Advisory Opinions and Orders: 2001 Bound Volume. United Nations Publications. 2004. pp. 179, 180. ISBN 9210709802.
- ^ Mojtahed-Zadeh, Pirouz (1999). Security and Territoriality in the Persian Gulf: A Maritime Political Geography. Psychology Press. p. 128. ISBN 0700710981.