In Middle Chinese, the phonological system of medieval rime dictionaries and rime tables, the final is the rest of the syllable after the initial consonant. This analysis is derived from the traditional Chinese fanqie system of indicating pronunciation with a pair of characters indicating the sounds of the initial and final parts of the syllable respectively, though in both cases several characters were used for each sound. Reconstruction of the pronunciation of finals is much more difficult than for initials due to the combination of multiple phonemes into a single class, and there is no agreement as to their values. Because of this lack of consensus, understanding of the reconstruction of finals requires delving into the details of rime tables and rime dictionaries.[1]

Finals and rhyme classes

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Each final is contained within a single rhyme class, but a rhyme class may contain more than one final:[2]

  • Several rhyme classes contain both "open" and "closed" finals, thought to be distinguished by the absence or presence of a medial /w/.
  • Six rhyme classes contain finals that appear to be distinguished according to the absence or presence of medial /j/: (closed) -wa, -jwa (rows 1 and 3); , -jæ (rows 2 and 3); -æng, -jæng (rows 2 and 3); -æk, -jæk (rows 2 and 3); -uwng, -juwng (rows 1 and 3); -uwk, -juwk (rows 1 and 3).
  • Some so-called chóngniǔ rhyme classes contain two finals after a labial, velar and laryngeal initials, one placed in row 3 and the other in row 4. (The finals are not distinguished after dental or sibilant initials, and scholars disagree on which of the two finals these should be allocated to.) In all such cases, the paired finals have identical outcomes in all modern Chinese dialects as well as in Sino-Japanese borrowings, and are generally palatalized; with sporadic exceptions.[3][4] However, in Sino-Vietnamese and Sino-Korean only the row-4 finals have such palatalization. Karlgren ignored the difference, but all modern linguists consider the distinction important, though they do not agree on its realization. Li's and Baxter's transcriptions adopt a convention of using /ji/ the row-4 finals in contrast to /j/ or /i/ for the row-3 finals.[5]

Classes of finals

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Karlgren noticed that classes of finals from the rime dictionaries were placed in different rows of the rime tables. As three classes of final were confined to the first, second and fourth rows respectively, he named them finals of divisions I, II and IV. The remaining finals he called "division-III finals" because they occurred in the third row of the tables. Some of these (the "pure" or "independent" division-III finals) occurred only in that row, while others (the "mixed" finals) could also occur in the second or fourth rows with some initials.[6] Karlgren disregarded the chongniu distinction, but later workers have emphasized its importance. Li Rong, in a systematic comparison of the rhyme tables with a recently discovered early edition of the Qieyun, identified seven classes of finals. The table below lists the combinations of initial and final classes that occur in the Qieyun, with the row of the rime tables in which each combination was placed:[7][8]

div. I div. II "division-III" finals div. IV
indep. mixed chongniu
Labials 1 2 3 3 3 4 4
Dental stops 1 4
Retroflex 2 3 3
Lateral 1 3 3 4
Dental sibilants 1 4 4 4
Palatal 3 3
Retroflex 2 2 2
Velars 1 2 3 3 3 4 4
Laryngeals 1 2 3 3 3 4 4

The mixed and chongniu finals, though designated as division-III finals, are spread across rows 2 and 4 as well as row 3 of the tables. To handle these cases, a distinction is made between the row that the homophone class is placed in and the "division" of its final. This article distinguishes rows by Arabic numerals 1 2 3 4 and divisions by Roman numerals I II III IV. In addition, chóngniǔ finals in division III are notated in the table of final outcomes below as III/3 or III/4, depending on the row in which they occur.

Significance of the division

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There are correspondences between certain divisions and the presence or absence of medial glides in later dialects, in ways that differ depending on the class of the initial (e.g. velar, labial, retroflex, etc.). There are also clear co-occurrence restrictions between initials and divisions, in that initials from certain of these same classes can occur with finals only from certain divisions. The LMC authors of this system appear to have been aware of these classes of initials, and seem to have determined the separation into divisions partly on the basis of the co-occurrence relationships and partly on the medial glides, although it is debated how the exact classification was made. It is important to remember that the authors of this system were attempting to use LMC phonology to reconstruct EMC phonology (although they probably thought of it more in terms of trying to harmonize the way that words were normally pronounced with the rather different system of rhymes and homophones as laid out in the Qieyun).

The clearest difference is between division III and other divisions, with division III generally corresponding to palatal initials and/or finals with palatal (i.e. high-front) vowels or glides. In addition, divisions I and IV allow exactly the same set of initials in EMC, suggesting that the distinction between the two postdates the EMC period. Division-IV syllables are commonly thought to reflect a diphthong containing a vocalic glide /i/ in LMC, corresponding to an EMC mid-front monophthong, variously reconstructed as /ɛ/, /e/ or ɪ. Beyond this, there is no consensus.

Karlgren, and many authors following him, suggest that neither divisions I nor II had any medial other than /w/ or /u/, with division I corresponding to back vowels and division II to front vowels. Some authors have suggested that division II corresponded not so much to front vowels as to centralized vowels. Many authors have recently suggested that division-II syllables consistently had a medial /r/ in Old Chinese, although this appeared to have already disappeared by EMC, so it's unclear exactly how this would have been carried forward into LMC. (Some have suggested that the system of divisions dates back at least to the time of the Qieyun (c. 600 AD), and reflects a medial /ɣ/ present very early on in the EMC period.)

Table of Early Middle Chinese finals

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The following table lists Early Middle Chinese (EMC) reconstructed "finals" (i.e. all of the syllable other than the initial consonant), according to different authors. It also lists the corresponding Late Middle Chinese (LMC) outcomes according to Pulleyblank, and the Standard Mandarin outcomes using Pinyin spelling. The table does not explicitly list finals ending in /p/, /t/ or /k/ (the so-called "entering tone" syllables), but these can easily be derived by substituting /p/ for /m/, /t/ for /n/, and /k/ for /ŋ/. Some columns are not strictly in IPA.

Late Middle Chinese (LMC) outcomes

Codes for initial classes:

  • G = guttural (velar or laryngeal, i.e. a back consonant)
  • P = labial (includes labiodental)
  • PG = labial or guttural (i.e. a grave consonant)
  • A = acute consonant (anything not in PG)
  • SR = EMC retroflex sibilant
  • ST = alveolar sibilant
  • M = /m/
  • RXLʔ = EMC retroflex, EMC palatal sibilant, /l/ or /ʔ/
Standard Mandarin outcomes

The modern outcomes are listed using the following codes:

  • P = bilabial stops (p, b)
  • PM = bilabials (p, b, m)
  • F = labiovelars (f, w < /m-/)
  • T = alveolar stops (t, d)
  • S = alveolar sibilants (c, z, s)
  • Š = retroflex sibilants (ch, zh, sh)
  • ŠR = retroflex (ch, zh, sh, r)
  • K = velars (k, g, h)
  • Q = palatal sibilants (q, j, x); they occur in place of either velars or alveolar sibilants when i or ü follows
  • G = gutturals (velars or no initial; in the latter case, stemming from MC ʔ- or ŋ-/ng- and sometimes written w- or y- in Pinyin)
  • J = "jutturals" (same as gutturals but with palatal sibilants in place of velars; occurs before i or ü)

The outcomes are written either as individual outcomes in Pinyin, or combined outcomes in "pseudo-Pinyin" (when the outcome begins with a "-" or uppercase letter). "Pseudo-Pinyin" uses Pinyin conventions but without any of the abbreviations normally in use in Pinyin. Examples:

  • "-uei" indicates the pronunciation /uei/, normally spelled -ui or wei
  • "-üe" indicates the pronunciation /ye/, normally spelled -ue (after q-, j-, x-); -üe (after l-, n-); or yue
  • "-i" indicates the pronunciation /i/ (usually [i], but [ɨ] after alveolar or retroflex sibilants); normally spelled -i or yi

When not indicated, the choice of whether a velar or palatal occurs is determined by the following vowel: palatals before -i or , velars elsewhere.

Example: A listed outcome like -uo, Ge, PMo; also Ta, occ. wo means that the outcome is -e for a guttural (i.e. ge, ke, he, e); -o for a labial (i.e. po, bo, mo); -uo elsewhere; but for alveolar stops, -a also appears (i.e. either tuo, duo or ta, da), and wo occasionally appears instead of e as the outcome of MC ʔ- or ŋ- (the outcome of both is a "null initial", which is counted as a "guttural" in the modern outcomes).

These outcomes assume the normal correspondences between EMC initials and Standard Mandarin initials:

  • EMC voiced stops and fricatives become unvoiced in Mandarin; stops in syllables with tone 1 become aspirated, otherwise unaspirated.
  • EMC palatal sibilants and retroflex stops become Mandarin retroflex sibilants.
  • EMC nasal changes: nr- becomes Mandarin n-; ny- becomes Mandarin r-, or sometimes the syllable er; ng- is dropped.
  • EMC guttural /ʔ-/ is dropped, and h- is dropped in the sequence hj-.
  • EMC velars and alveolar sibilants become Mandarin palatal sibilants before Early Mandarin -i- or -ü- (/y/).
  • With certain finals, EMC labial stops become Mandarin f-, and EMC m- usually becomes Mandarin w-; this is indicated by F-. Lowercase f- appears in finals where EMC labial stops become Mandarin f-, but either there are no known examples of EMC m- with the same final, or EMC m- with that final becomes Mandarin m- rather than w-.

In a couple of situations where two different EMC initials have merged, the modern outcome is nonetheless different depending on the EMC initial:

  • EMC retroflex and palatal sibilants merged in LMC, but sometimes the modern outcomes are different. For example, under -ip, the notation -i, Še < SR- means that EMC syip > shi but EMC srip > she.
  • EMC ng- and ʔ- both disappear, but sometimes with different results. For example, -ai, ya < ʔ-, Qie means that the modern result is ya when the EMC syllable began with ʔ- but ai when the EMC syllable began with ng- /ŋ-/. On the other hand, -ao, ao < ʔ-, Jiao means that the modern result is ao when the EMC syllable began with ʔ- but yao when the EMC syllable began with ng- /ŋ-/ (since J- includes original velars); likewise for -uo, wo < ʔ-, Jüe, indicating wo vs. yue.

Zero coda

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Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Zhengzhang Shangfang Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang
(outer) I open ɑ ɑ a [ɑ] a [ɑ], Pua [ɑ] a ɑ ɐ ɑ -uo, Ge, PMo; also Ta, occ. wo
I closed wa [wɑ] ua [uɑ] wa -uo; also Ge
III-mixed open i̯ɑ ɨa [ɨɑ] ia [iɑ] ja ɑ œ ɨɑ Qie
III-mixed closed i̯wɑ iuɑ ua [uɑ] ya [yɑ] jwa ɨuɑ Qüe
(outer) II open a a (ɛɨ) [ɑː], Gjaː [Gjɑː] æ æ ɛ ɣa -a, Jia
II closed wa ua waɨ (wɛɨ) waː [wɑː] ɣua -ua
III-mixed open i̯a ia ia [iɑ] ia [iɑ] ia Jie, ŠRe
(inner) I closed uo o ɔ uə̆ [uɔ] u u ə uo -u
III-mixed closed i̯wo ɨə̆ iə̆ [iɛ], SRəə̆ [SRɤ] (yə̆ [yɛ], SRuə̆ [SRuɔ]) jo œ ø ɨʌ -ü, Fu, ŠRu
III-mixed closed i̯u io uə̆ yə̆ [yɛ], SRuə̆ [SRuɔ] ju ø ø ɨo

Palatal glide coda

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Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Zhengzhang Shangfang Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang
(outer) I open ɑ̌i ɒi əj aj oj əj əj ʌi -ai, Pei
I closed uɑ̌i uɒi wəj uaj woj ʏj ʏj uʌi -uei, PMei, lei, nei
I open ɑi ɑi aj aj ajH[b] ɑj ɐj ɑi -ai, Pei
I closed wɑi uɑi waj uaj wajH[b] wɑj wɐj uɑi -uei
II open ə̆i ɛi əɨj aːj, Gjaːj ɛj ɑj ɛj ɣɛi -ai, Qie; also Pei
II closed wə̆i uɛi wəɨj waːj wɛj wɑj wɛj ɣuɛi Kuai
II open ai ɛ aɨj aːj, Gjaːj ɛ (ɛɨ)[c] ɛ ɛj ɣɛ -ai, ya < ʔ-, Qie; also Pa
II closed wai waɨj waːj (wɛɨ)[c] wɛj ɣuɛ -ua; also wai
II open ai ai aɨj(s)[b] aːj, Gjaːj æjH[b] æj ɛj ɣai -ai, Qie
II closed wai uai waɨj(s)[b] waːj wæjH[b] wæj wɛj ɣuai Kuai
III/3 open i̯ɛi iɛi iaj iaj jejH[b] ej ej ɣiᴇi -i
III/4 open jɛi jiaj PGjiaj jiejH[b] jej jej iᴇi
III/3 closed i̯wɛi iuɛi wiaj yaj jwejH[b] wej wej ɣiuᴇi -uei
III/4 closed juɛi jwiaj PGjyaj jwiejH[b] wjej wjej iuᴇi
III-indep open i̯æi iɐi ɨaj iaj jojH[b] øj øj ɨɐi fei, yi
III-indep closed i̯wæi iuɐi uaj yaj jwojH[b] wøj wøj ʉɐi Kuei
IV open iei ei ɛj PGjiaj, Aiaj ej ɐj ɪj ei -i
IV closed iwei uei wɛj Gjyaj wej wɐj wɪj wei Kuei
(inner) III/3 open ie iə̆ i, SRṛ, STẓ je e i ɣiᴇ -i, er < ny-; occ. Pei
III/4 open je jiə̆ PGji jie je ji iᴇ
III/3 closed wiě iue wiə̆ yj, SRuj jwe we wi ɣiuᴇ -uei, lei
III/4 closed jue jwiə̆ PGjyj jwie wje wji iuᴇ
III/3 open i i i i, SRṛ, STẓ ij i i ɣiɪ -i, er < ny-; occ. PMei
III/4 open ji ji PGji jij ji ji
III/3 closed wi ui wi yj, SRuj wij wi wi ɣiuɪ -uei, lei, yi?
III/4 closed jui jwi PGjyj jwij wji wji iuɪ
III-mixed open i ɨ i, SRṛ, STẓ i i e ɨ -i, er < ny-
III-indep open ěi iəi ɨj i jɨj yj yj ɨi Ji, Fei
III-indep closed wěi iuəi uj yj jwɨj wyj wyj ʉi Guei

Labial-velar glide coda

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Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Zhengzhang Shangfang Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang
(outer) I open ɑu ɑu aw (u)aw aw ɑw ɐw ɑu -ao
II open au au aɨw aːw, Gjaːw æw ɛw ɛw ɣau -ao, ao < ʔ-, Jiao
III/3 open i̯ɛu iɛu iaw iaw jew ew ew ɣiᴇu -iao, ŠRao
III/4 open jɛu jiaw PGjiaw jiew jew jew iᴇu
IV open ieu eu ɛw PGjiaw, Aiaw ew ɪw ɪw eu
(inner) I open ə̆u u əw əw uw ʉ u əu -ou; also mu
III-mixed open iə̆u iu uw iw, SRəw, Məw juw y y ɨu -iou, fou, mou, ŠRou; also Sou < Š-
III/4 open i̯ĕu iĕu jiw jiw jiw iw iw iɪu -iou

Labial codas

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Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Zhengzhang Shangfang Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang -m -p
(outer) I open ɑ̌m ɒm əm am om ɔm ɔm ʌm -an -a, Ke
I open ɑm ɑm am am am ɑm ɐm ɑm
II open ə̆m ɐm əɨm aːm, Gjaːm ɛm ɛm ɛm ɣɛm -an, Jian Jia, Ša
II open am am aɨm aːm, Gjaːm æm æm ɛm ɣam
III/3 open i̯ɛm iɛm iam iam jem em em ɣiᴇm -ian, ŠRan -ie, Še
III/4 open jɛm jiam PGjiam jiem jem jem iᴇm
III-indep open i̯æm iɐm ɨam iam jæm øm øm ɨɐm -ian, fan -ie, fa
III-indep closed i̯wæm iuɐm uam iam jom/jwom? œm øm ʉɐm
IV open iem em ɛm PGjiam, Aiam em ɪm ɪm em -ian Qie
(inner) III/3 open i̯əm iəm im im, SRəm im im im ɣiɪm -in, ŠRen; also Sen < Š- -i, Še < SR-
III/4 open jəm jim PGjim jim jim jim iɪm

Dental codas

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Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Zhengzhang Shangfang Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang -n -t
(outer) I open ɑn ɑn an an an ɑn ɐn ɑn -an -a, Ge, PMo
I closed uɑn uɑn wan uan wan wɑn wɐn uɑn -uan, PMan -uo, PMo
II open an an aɨn aːn, Gjaːn æn æn ɛn ɣan -an, Jian -a, Jia
II closed wan uan waɨn waːn wæn wæn wɛn ɣuan -uan Kua
II open ə̆n ɛn əɨn aːn, Gjaːn ɛn ɛn ɛn ɣɛn -an, Jian -a, Jia
II closed wə̆n uɛn wəɨn waːn wɛn wɛn wɛn ɣuɛn Kuan Gua
III/3 open i̯ɛn iɛn ian ian jen en en ɣiᴇn -ian, ŠRan -ie, ŠRe
III/4 open jɛn jian PGjian jien jen jen iᴇn
III/3 closed i̯wɛn iuɛn wian yan jwen wen wen ɣiuᴇn -uan, Jüan; also lian Jüe, lie, Šuo
III/4 closed juɛn jwian PGjyan jwien wjen wjen iuᴇn
III-indep open i̯æn iɐn ɨan ian jon øn øn ɨɐn Jian, Fan Jie, fa
III-indep closed i̯wæn iuɐn uan yan jwon wøn wøn ʉɐn Jüan, Fan Jüe
IV open ien en ɛn PGjian, Aian en ɪn ɪn en -ian -ie
IV closed iwen uen wɛn jyan wen wɪn wɪn wen Jüan Qüe
(inner) I open ən ən ən ən on ən ən ən Gen Ke
I closed u̯ən uən wən un won ʏn ʏn uən -uen, PMen -u, PMo, ne
III/3 open i̯ɛn iɛn in SRən in in in ɪn -in, ŠRen; also Sen < Š- -i, Še < SR-
III/3 open i̯ēn iēn in in, SRən in in in ɣiɪn
III/4 open jēn jin PGjin jin jin jin iɪn
III/3 closed i̯wēn iuēn win yn win win win ɣiuɪn -uen, Jün
III/3 closed i̯uēn iuēn win yn win win win ɣiuɪn
III/4 closed juēn jwin PGjyn jwin jwin jwin iuɪn
欣(殷?) III-indep open i̯ən iən ɨn in jɨn in yn ɨn Jin Ji
III-indep closed i̯uən iuən un yn, yt, SRut jun yn yn ɨun Jün, Fen Jü, Fu

Velar codas

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Yunjing rhyme class Qieyun rhyme class division rounding Bernhard Karlgren Li Rong Edwin G. Pulleyblank [a] William H. Baxter Abraham Y.S. Chan Zhengzhang Shangfang Standard Mandarin pronunciation
EMC LMC Jinling Luoyang -k
(outer) I open ɑŋ ɑŋ [ɑŋ] [ɑŋ] ɑŋ ɐŋ ɑŋ -ang -uo, Ge, PMo; also lao; occ. Sao
I closed wɑŋ uɑŋ waŋ [wɑŋ] uaŋ [uɑŋ] waŋ wɑŋ wɐŋ wɑŋ Kuang Kuo
III-mixed open i̯aŋ iaŋ ɨaŋ [ɨɑŋ] iaŋ [iɑŋ], SRaːŋ [SRɑːŋ] jaŋ œŋ œŋ ɨɐŋ -iang, Fang, ŠRang; also Šuang < SR- -üe, ŠRuo; also Jiao
III-mixed closed i̯waŋ iuaŋ uaŋ [uɑŋ] yaŋ [yɑŋ] jwaŋ wœŋ wœŋ ʉɐŋ Kuang Qüe
(outer) II open ɔŋ ɔŋ aɨwŋ aːwŋ, RXLʔwaːwŋ, Gjaːwŋ æwŋ ɔŋ ɔŋ ɣʌŋ Qiang, Pang, Šuang < TR- -uo, wo < ʔ-, Jüe, Pao; also Qiao, Po
(inner) I open əŋ əŋ əŋ əə̆ŋ [ɤŋ] əŋ -eng -e, PMo; also Sei, lei
I closed wəŋ uəŋ wəŋ uə̆ŋ [uɔŋ] woŋ woŋ woŋ wəŋ Kong Kuo
III-mixed open i̯əŋ iəŋ iə̆ŋ [iɛŋ], iə̆k [iɛk], SRəə̆k [SRɤk] ɨŋ -ing, ŠReng -i, Še < SR-; also Se < SR-
III-mixed closed i̯wəŋ iuəŋ wiŋ yə̆ŋ [yɛŋ] wiŋ wiŋ wiŋ wɨŋ unobserved
(outer) II open æŋ ɐŋ aɨjŋ aːjŋ, Gjaːjŋ æŋ æŋ ɛŋ ɣæŋ Jing, -eng; also Keng -ai, Ge; also PMo, Se < Š-
II closed wæŋ uɐŋ waɨjŋ waːjŋ wæŋ wæŋ wɛŋ wɣæŋ Keng unobserved
II open ɛŋ ɛŋ əɨjŋ aːjŋ, Gjaːjŋ ɛŋ ɛŋ ɛŋ ɣɛŋ Jing, -eng; also Keng -ai, Ge; also Se < Š-
II closed wɛŋ uɛŋ wəɨjŋ waːjŋ wɛŋ wɛŋ wɛŋ wɣɛŋ Kong Kuo
III/3 open i̯æŋ iɐŋ iajŋ iajŋ jæŋ jɛŋ ɣiæŋ -ing, Šeng -i
III/3 closed i̯wæŋ iuɐŋ wiajŋ yajŋ jwæŋ weŋ wjɛŋ wɣiæŋ Qiong unobserved
III/3 open i̯ɛŋ iɛŋ iajŋ iajŋ jeŋ iᴇŋ -ing, Šeng -i
III/4 open jɛŋ jiajŋ PGjiajŋ jieŋ jeŋ jeŋ iᴇŋ
III/3 closed i̯wɛŋ iuɛŋ wiajŋ yajŋ jweŋ weŋ weŋ wiᴇŋ Qiong, ying yi
III/4 closed juɛŋ jwiajŋ jyajŋ jwieŋ wjeŋ wjeŋ wiᴇŋ
IV open ieŋ ɛjŋ PGjiajŋ, Aiajŋ ɪŋ ɪŋ -ing -i
IV closed iweŋ ueŋ Kwɛjŋ jyajŋ weŋ wɪŋ wɪŋ weŋ Qiong unobserved
(inner) I closed əwŋ əwŋ uwŋ ʉŋ ʉŋ -ong, weng, PMeng; occ. Seng -u; also wo
I closed uoŋ awŋ əwŋ owŋ əŋ uoŋ
III-mixed closed iuŋ iuŋ uwŋ iwŋ, SRəwŋ, Məwŋ juwŋ ɨuŋ -ong, Jiong, feng; also Kong -u, Jü; also liu, ŠRou
III-mixed closed i̯woŋ ioŋ uawŋ ywŋ jowŋ øŋ øŋ ɨoŋ

Notes

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  1. ^ a b c d e f The table uses the notation in Pulleyblank (1991), which differs in some ways from Pulleyblank (1984).
  2. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l These finals occur only in tone 3 (the "departing tone"). This is because they come from Old Chinese finals in -ts > -js, while the corresponding Old Chinese finals in -j lost the /j/. As a result, they often appear in Pulleyblank (1962) as e.g. aɨj(s) and in Baxter (1992) as e.g. æjH, where the s and H are the respective notations for tone 3.
  3. ^ a b In Baxter (1992), these finals are indicated as ɛɨ and wɛɨ, but in Baxter & Sagart (2010), they have changed to simply ɛ and .

References

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Footnotes
  1. ^ Norman (1988), pp. 36–38.
  2. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 62–63.
  3. ^ Schuessler (2009), pp. 8–9.
  4. ^ Pan & Zhang (2015), pp. 86–87.
  5. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 75–79.
  6. ^ Branner (2006), p. 24.
  7. ^ Branner (2006), p. 25.
  8. ^ Baxter (1992), pp. 63–81.
Works cited
  • Baxter, William H. (1992), A Handbook of Old Chinese Phonology, Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter, ISBN 978-3-11-012324-1.
  • ——; Sagart, Laurent (20 February 2010), Baxter-Sagart Old Chinese reconstruction, Version 1.00.
  • Branner, David Prager (2006), "What are rime tables and what do they mean?", in Branner, David Prager (ed.), The Chinese Rime Tables: Linguistic Philosophy and Historical-Comparative Phonology, Amsterdam: John Benjamins, pp. 1–34, ISBN 978-90-272-4785-8. See also List of Corrigenda.
  • Chan, Abraham (2004), "Early Middle Chinese Towards a New Paradigm", T'oung Pao, 90 (1/3): 122–162, doi:10.1163/1568532042523149, JSTOR 4528958.
  • Karlgren, Bernhard (1957), Grammata Serica Recensa, Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern Antiquities, OCLC 1999753.
  • Li, Fang-Kuei (1974–1975), "Studies on Archaic Chinese", Monumenta Serica, 31, Gilbert L. Mattos (trans.): 219–287.
  • Newman, J.; Raman, A. V. (1999), Chinese historical phonology: a compendium of Beijing and Cantonese pronunciations of characters and their derivations from Middle Chinese, LINCOM studies in Asian linguistics, vol. 27, Munich: LINCOM Europa, ISBN 978-3-89586-543-5.
  • Norman, Jerry (1988), Chinese, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-29653-3.
  • Pan, Wuyun; Zhang, Hongming (2015), "Chapter 6: Middle Chinese Phonology and Qieyun", in Wang, William S-Y; Sun, Chaofen (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Chinese Linguistics, Oxford: Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-1998-5633-6.
  • Pulleyblank, Edwin G. (1962), "The Consonantal System of Old Chinese", Asia Major, 9: 58–144, 206–265.
  • —— (1970), "Late Middle Chinese, Part I" (PDF), Asia Major, 15: 197–239.
  • —— (1971), "Late Middle Chinese, Part II" (PDF), Asia Major, 16: 121–166.
  • —— (1984), Middle Chinese: a study in historical phonology, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-0192-8.
  • —— (1991), Lexicon of reconstructed pronunciation in early Middle Chinese, late Middle Chinese, and early Mandarin, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, ISBN 978-0-7748-0366-3.
  • Schuessler, Axel (2009), Minimal Old Chinese and Later Han Chinese: A Companion to Grammata Serica Recensa, University of Hawaii Press, ISBN 978-0-8248-3264-3.
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