The Khalji Revolution,[1] alternatively spelled the Khilji Revolution,[2] marked a military coup and a period of political and societal transformation in the Delhi Sultanate. It unfolded following the demise of Mamluk sultan Balban and the subsequent incapacity of his successors to effectively govern the Delhi Sultanate. The upheaval commenced and concluded in 1290 when Jalaluddin Khalji seized absolute power, toppling the Mamluks and inaugurating the rule of the Khalji dynasty.
| Khalji Revolution | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
 Jalaluddin enthroned as Sultan of Delhi | |||||||
| |||||||
| Belligerents | |||||||
| Khalji faction |
Mamluk dynasty Turkish faction | ||||||
| Commanders and leaders | |||||||
|
Jalaluddin Khalji Alauddin Khalji Ikhtiyaruddin (WIA) |
Muiz ud din Qaiqabad X Shamsuddin Kayumars X Aitmar Surkah † Aitmar Kachhan † | ||||||
After Balban's demise, his underage grandson Qaiqabad ascended the throne. Neglectful of governance, Qaiqabad later fell ill and became paralyzed, leading to the succession of his infant son, Shamsuddin Kayumars. Amidst this upheaval, factions arose within the Mamluk court, with the Turkish faction led by Aitmar Surkah facing off against the Khalji faction, led by Jalaluddin Khalji.
Conflict erupted between the factions, culminating in the Khaljis kidnapping Shamsuddin, the infant king. A battle ensued, resulting in the defeat of the Turks. Following their defeat, a significant portion of the Turkic nobility defected to the Khalji faction. With the infant sultan under his control and Qaiqabad nearing death, Jalaluddin assumed the roles of regent and wazir, ultimately consolidating absolute power and deposing Shamsuddin in June 1290.
The success of the revolution witnessed the Khalji dynasty replacing the Mamluk dynasty as the ruling dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate. Jalaluddin's reign endured merely six years until his assassination by his nephew, Alauddin Khalji. This revolution signaled the conclusion of Turkish hegemony over the nobility of the Delhi Sultanate.
Background edit
The Mamluks were established in 1206 after the Ghurid Empire under Muhammad of Ghor conducted numerous invasions into India. Founded by Qutb ud-Din Aibak, a slave of Ghurid overlord Muhammad of Ghor, the Mamluks rose to power. Qutb ud-Din, who earned the right to rule over the Delhi Sultanate through campaigns against Indian kingdoms, was succeeded by Iltutmish, a ruler who significantly expanded the Sultanate and implemented numerous reforms.[3] Balban continued to strengthen the Delhi Sultanate after ascending the throne in 1266.[4] Balban's death in 1286 led to his grandson Qaiqabad assuming the throne. Qaiqabad, initially raised following Islamic principles, succumbed to a hedonistic lifestyle upon ascending the throne, resulting in a decline of the administrative reforms initiated by Balban.[5] Seizing the opportunity presented by Qaiqabad's complications, Malik Nizamuddin became the de facto regent of the Sultanate, consolidating power by placing loyalists in key positions.[6]
Bughra Khan, Qaiqabad's father, alarmed by Nizamuddin's rapid acquisition of power and Qaiqabad's elimination of rival Amirs through intrigue, warned his son through letters about the impending threat. Ignoring his father's advice, Qaiqabad failed to recognize the danger and, as a result, Bughra Khan decided to personally meet his son in Bengal. Amir Khusrau and Barani provided differing accounts of their meeting. Amir Khusrau suggested that Bughra Khan aimed to seize Delhi for himself. Advancing to Bihar, Qaiqabad marched out of the city to prepare for conflict. Barani, however, contended that Qaiqabad himself initiated the assembly of an army to confront his father. Despite Nizamuddin's attempts to foment discord between them, he failed. Bughra Khan and Qaiqabad met on the banks of the Gogra river in 1288.[7] Bughra Khan advised Qaiqabad to abstain from indulging in wine and pleasure with concubines, and to remove Nizamuddin from power. After his father's departure, Qaiqabad attempted to resist indulging in debauchery but soon returned to his previous lifestyle. Qaiqabad instructed Nizamuddin to return to Multan to oversee administrative affairs. Delaying his departure, Nizamuddin was eventually poisoned and killed by Turkish officers, who had been secretly permitted by Qaiqabad.[8][9]
The assassination of Nizamuddin impaired the government's administrative capabilities, prompting Qaiqabad to seek assistance from Jalaluddin Khalji, the governor of Samana. Jalaluddin, distinguished for his role in repelling Mongol invasions,[10] was given the title of Shaista Khan by Qaiqabad, along with the positions of minister of war and governorship of Baran.[11][12] However, other Turkish nobles, opposed to Jalaluddin's rise due to his low-born Afghan origin,[13] and contested his position.[14][15] Qaiqabad, paralyzed under unknown circumstances, initiated a power struggle in the court, leading to Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan placing Qaiqabad's infant son, Shamsuddin Kayumars, on the Delhi throne in February 1290. Shamsuddin's ascension saw the emergence of two factions within the Mamluk court: the Turkish faction led by Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan, and the Khalji faction led by Jalaluddin Khalji. The Turkish faction aimed to maintain Turkish dominance over the Delhi Sultanate, while the Khalji faction sought power for themselves.[16][17][18]
Revolution edit
Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan conspired against Jalaluddin's faction, forming a list of nobles, with Jalaluddin at the top, whom they intended to put to death. Ahmad Chap, the Hajib of the Mamluks, informed Jalaluddin of the impending plot. Believing Delhi was no longer safe, Jalaluddin departed for Baharpur, gathering men from Baran under the pretext of an imminent Mongol invasion.[19][20] Subsequently, Aitmar Surkah and Aitmar Kachhan initiated intrigue, sending a letter to Jalaluddin addressing him as emperor.[21] Another account suggested it was a letter summoning him to court.[20] Regardless, as Kachhan arrived at Jalaluddin's camp, he was pulled from his horse and killed by Alauddin Khalji, officially sparking conflict between the two factions.[21][20][22]
Jalaluddin's sons swiftly rode to Delhi, accompanied by around 50 horsemen. The force entered Delhi, forcibly seizing Shamsuddin before departing for Baharpur. Aitmar Surkah pursued the force, engaging in battle in the same area. In one encounter, Ikhtiyaruddin, Jalaluddin's eldest son, was thrown from his horse and engaged in single combat with Aitmar Surkah. Despite being struck two or three times, Ikhtiyaruddin survived and managed to decapitate Aitmar Surkah. Following this, a revolt erupted in Delhi. The rebels sought to march to Baharpur and restore Shamsuddin to power. However, Malikul'umra halted the rebels at the gate of Badaon, preventing them from leaving to fight the Khaljis due to his own sons being held captive by Jalaluddin. With Aitmar Surkah dead and the rebels dispersed, many Turkish Amirs switched sides to the Khaljis, significantly bolstering their strength.[23][20] With Jalaluddin unopposed, he ordered the death of Qaiqabad, who was clinging to life due to his illness. Qaiqabad was wrapped in a carpet and thrown into the Yamuna River on 1 February 1290. Despite holding a powerful position, Jalaluddin initially allowed Shamsuddin to continue ruling, relocating him to Baharpur while also negotiating with Malik Chajju, a nephew of Balban. Jalaluddin offered Malik Chajju the role of regent, but Malik Chajju preferred the governorship of Kara. With Jalaluddin's approval, Malik Chajju left for Kara. Jalaluddin assumed the roles of regent and wazir of the Sultanate. Eventually, he seized complete power, crowning himself in Kilughari palace, a suburb in Delhi, in June 1290. Shamsuddin was imprisoned and died sometime afterward.[23][24]
Aftermath edit
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With the ascent of the Khalji dynasty and Jalaluddin's rule, Turkish dominance over the nobility of the Sultanate was dismantled, paving the way for non-Turks to assume prominence.[25][26] The Khaljis governed the Delhi Sultanate from 1290 to 1320 before being succeeded by the Tughlaq dynasty. Jalaluddin's rule lasted only six years before his assassination by his ambitious nephew, Alauddin Khalji, who significantly expanded the Sultanate during his reign from 1296 to 1316.[13][27]
See also edit
Citations edit
- ^ Unesco 1998, p. 272.
- ^ Chaurasia 2002, p. 28.
- ^ Jackson 2003, p. 26.
- ^ Mehta 1979, pp. 76–91.
- ^ Lal 1967, p. 2.
- ^ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 304–305.
- ^ Ali 1968, p. 70.
- ^ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 307–308.
- ^ Lal 1967, pp. 5–6.
- ^ A. L. Srivastava 1966, p. 140.
- ^ Jackson 2003, p. 82.
- ^ Mehta 1979, p. 128.
- ^ a b Mahajan 2007, p. 121.
- ^ Fisher 2018, p. 86.
- ^ Chandra 2007, p. 93.
- ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 1979, p. 2.
- ^ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 308–309.
- ^ Lal 1967, pp. 6–7.
- ^ Lal 1967, pp. 7–8.
- ^ a b c d Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, p. 309.
- ^ a b Lal 1967, p. 8.
- ^ Chopra, Ravindran & Subrahmanian 1979, pp. 2–3.
- ^ a b Lal 1967, p. 9.
- ^ Habib & Khaliq Ahmad 1970, pp. 309–311.
- ^ Bowman 2000, p. 267.
- ^ Mehta 1979, p. 127.
- ^ Chaurasia 2002, pp. 27–28.
References edit
- Bowman, John S. (5 September 2000). Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture. Columbia University Press. ISBN 978-0-231-50004-3.
- Chandra, Satish (2007). History of Medieval India: 800–1700. Orient Longman. ISBN 978-81-250-3226-7.
- Chaurasia, Radhey Shyam (2002). History of Medieval India: From 1000 A.D. to 1707 A.D. Atlantic Publishers & Dist. ISBN 978-81-269-0123-4.
- Chopra, Pran Nath; Ravindran, T. K.; Subrahmanian, N. (1979). History of South India: Medieval period. S. Chand.
- Fisher, Michael H. (18 October 2018). An Environmental History of India: From Earliest Times to the Twenty-First Century. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-1-107-11162-2.
- Habib, Mohammad; Khaliq Ahmad, Nizami (1970). A Comprehensive History of India: The Delhi Sultanat, A.D. 1206–1526. Orient Longmans.
- Jackson, Peter (16 October 2003). The Delhi Sultanate: A Political and Military History. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-54329-3.
- Ali, Kausar (1968). A New History of Indo-Pakistan. Ali Publications.
- Lal, Kishori Saran (1967). History of the Khaljis, A.D. 1290–1320. Asia Publishing House.
- Mahajan, V. D. (2007). History of Medieval India. S. Chand Publishing. ISBN 978-81-219-0364-6.
- Mehta, Jaswant Lal (1979). Advanced Study in the History of Medieval India. Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. ISBN 978-81-207-0617-0.
- A. L. Srivastava (1966). The Sultanate of Delhi, 711–1526 A.D. (Second ed.). Shiva Lal Agarwala. OCLC 607636383.
- Unesco (1 January 1998). History of Civilizations of Central Asia. UNESCO. ISBN 978-92-3-103467-1.