Wikipedia

Innovative Genomics Institute

The Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI) is an American nonprofit scientific research institute founded by Nobel laureate and CRISPR gene editing pioneer Jennifer Doudna and biophysicist Jonathan Weissman.[1][2] The institute is based at the University of California, Berkeley, and also has member researchers at the University of California, San Francisco, UC Davis, UCLA, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Gladstone Institutes, and other collaborating research institutions. The IGI focuses on developing real-world applications of genome editing to address problems in human health, agriculture and climate change.[3][4]

Innovative Genomics Institute
Founder(s)Jennifer Doudna and Jonathan Weissman
Established2015; 9 years ago (2015)
FocusGene editing, CRISPR, genomics, human health, sustainable agriculture, climate change
PresidentJennifer Doudna
Key peopleJennifer Doudna, Bradley Ringeisen, Jillian Banfield, Fyodor Urnov, Alex Marson, Brian Staskawicz, Pamela Ronald
Address2151 Berkeley Way, Berkeley, CA, 94720
Location
University of California, Berkeley
,
Berkeley
,
California
,
US
Coordinates37°52′27″N 122°16′00″W / 37.874044757682164°N 122.26678015439391°W / 37.874044757682164; -122.26678015439391
Websiteinnovativegenomics.org

In addition to Doudna, current IGI directors and investigators include Jillian Banfield, who first introduced Doudna to CRISPR systems in bacteria in 2006,[5][6] Fyodor Urnov, who coined the term "genome editing" with colleagues in 2005,[7][8] as well as Alex Marson, Brian Staskawicz, and Pamela Ronald.[9][10] The current executive director is Bradley Ringeisen, former director of the Biological Technologies Office at DARPA, who joined the IGI in 2020.[11][12]

History

edit

The first paper demonstrating the use of CRISPR-Cas9 as a programmable genome editing tool was published in 2012 by Doudna, Emmanuelle Charpentier and colleagues,[13] work that would result in Doudna and Charpentier being awarded the 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.[14] Around this time, for-profit companies started forming to commercialize CRISPR in various ways, including Caribou Biosciences, Editas Medicine, and CRISPR Therapeutics. While Doudna was involved in some of commercial ventures, she also felt that a nonprofit institute could play a unique role in driving the science forward and helping develop ethical guidelines and equitable access to gene-editing technology in ways that market-driven companies would not, particularly because CRISPR held so much promise for addressing rare diseases that had often been neglected by the pharmaceutical industry.[3][15][16][17][18]

 
Jennifer Doudna at the Innovative Genomics Institute in 2021

The formation of the IGI was initially announced in March 2014 as the "Innovative Genomics Initiative", a partnership between UC Berkeley and UCSF researchers and biopharmaceutical industry partners with the aim of enhancing and genome-editing technology and applying it to drug development and global health, with funding support from the Li Ka Shing Foundation and the two universities.[19] The official launch event was held on February 4, 2015.[20][2] Early projects at the IGI focused on studying the use of CRISPR to address severe combined immunodeficiency disease and sickle cell disease. The IGI partnered with AstraZeneca and Agilent Technologies in 2015 to identify potential gene targets related to cancer, cardiovascular disease, autoimmune and inflammatory diseases, and other diseases with genetic components.[20][2][21]

In January 2017, the IGI relaunched as the Innovative Genomics Institute and moved into their current building on the UC Berkeley campus. At the same time, new sources of funding allowed the institute expanded its scope to apply CRISPR and other genomic technologies to plants and agriculture, and the IGI brought in Brian Staskawicz as the director of this program.[22] In early 2020, IGI co-founder Jonathan Weissman left UCSF and the IGI to take on the role of Landon T. Clay Professor of Biology at Whitehead Institute and professor of Biology at Massachusetts Institute of Technology.[23]

On March 9, 2020, UC Berkeley announced the suspension in-person classes and began shutting down many campus buildings due to the COVID-19 pandemic.[24][25] On March 13, 2020, Doudna convened a meeting with IGI leadership to discuss whether the institute should temporarily shut down. Instead, they decided to rapidly launch a diagnostic testing facility in the IGI building to provide testing to the UC Berkeley community as well as first responders and underserved populations in the surrounding cities.[26][27][16] In addition to providing testing, the IGI awarded funding to support research studies into COVID-19 biology, epidemiology, public health impact, as well as novel diagnostics and therapeutic approaches.[28][29] The IGI testing lab processed over 600,000 patient samples.[1] Doudna has said that the IGI's experience with the COVID-19 response and rapid large-team science changed the way the institute selected projects moving forward because it showed how much impact can be made when researchers work together on a common goal.[30][1]

On October 7, 2020, the Nobel Prize in Chemistry was awarded to Doudna and Charpentier for their work on developing CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing.[31][32] Doudna was unable to attend the traditional live awards ceremony in Stockholm due to the COVID-19 pandemic, so she accepted the award at her home in Berkeley, California, and celebrations were held at the IGI building.[14][33][34]

In October 2023, UC Berkeley announced plans to build a new "innovation zone" in downtown Berkeley with laboratory buildings that would provide new space for the IGI.[35]

Research areas

edit

IGI research centers around genome editing, incorporating researchers focused on human health applications, agricultural applications, development of genome-editing technology, and translation of lab discoveries into real-world solutions.

Advancing genome engineering

edit

Since its founding, IGI researchers have discovered multiple new genome-editing proteins, expanding the toolkit beyond Cas9.[36] The wave of discoveries of additional genome-editing tools with different properties, including new Cas proteins and techniques like base editing, was sometimes called "CRISPR 2.0" in popular science reporting.[37][38] Ultra-compact proteins CasX and CasY were discovered by Jillian Banfield and collaborators at the IGI in some of the world's smallest microbes.[39][40] Another compact Cas protein, CasΦ ("Cas phi"), was discovered by Banfield and Doudna and colleagues in the genomes of huge bacteriophages.[41][42] Doudna and other IGI researchers have also advanced new techniques to improve non-viral and in vivo delivery of CRISPR-based therapeutics for medical applications, and worked on improving CRISPR safety and precision.[43][44][45][46]

Human health

edit

The IGI human health program has focused on developing therapies for rare and neglected genetic diseases and platform technology approaches to addressing rare diseases, including sickle cell disease and other blood and immune disorders.[47] In 2021, the US Food and Drug Administration approved a clinical trial for an experimental CRISPR-based therapy for sickle cell disease developed by a consortium including the IGI, UCSF Benioff Children's Hospital, and the UCLA Broad Stem Cell Research Center.[48] Other health research at the IGI focuses on cancer,[49][50] neurodegenerative diseases,[51][52] and clinical diagnostics.[53][54]

Climate and sustainable agriculture

edit

The IGI sustainable agriculture program and its Plant Genomics and Transformation Facility has developed CRISPR protocols for editing over 30 common crop species,[17] and has worked on developing applications including protecting the world's chocolate supply from cacao swollen shoot virus,[55][56] removing toxic cyanide precursors in cassava,[57] and improving drought tolerance in rice.[58]

In 2022, the IGI launched new programs to apply genome editing and genomic technologies to the challenge of mitigating and adapting to climate change.[59] This work included efforts to reduce agricultural emissions, capture atmospheric carbon, and help farmers adapt to changing conditions. The Chan Zuckerberg Initiative committed $11 million to the IGI to support research on CRISPR-based approaches to enhancing the ability of plants and soils to remove and sequester atmospheric carbon.[10][60]

At the 2023 TED conference in Vancouver, it was announced that the IGI was selected for funding by the Audacious Project and the institute received $70 million from donors to develop microbiome editing tools that can be applied to real-world problems related to human health and climate change. The project, entitled "Engineering the Microbiome with CRISPR to Improve our Climate and Health," is initially targeting two problems caused by microbiomes, methane emissions from livestock, and childhood asthma.[61][62][1]

Public impact

edit

An IGI team focuses on public impact works across disciplines to shape the impact of genome-editing research on society through research in ethics, law, economics, and policy.[63]

In a meeting with US senators in December 2018, Doudna was asked about the potential high cost of a CRISPR-based treatment of sickle cell disease and what could be done to bring these costs down. When she returned to the IGI following this meeting, she decided to make affordability a part of the mission of the IGI, and a key goal for its sickle cell initiative.[16]

In 2022, the IGI convened a group of 30 experts from diverse fields, including biotech, economics, manufacturing, venture capital, and intellectual property, to develop a plan to improve the affordability of genetic medicines. Current gene therapies and genome editing therapies can cost in the range of $2 to $3 million per patient. The group developed a report entitled "Making Genetic Therapies Affordable and Accessible" that developed strategies for reducing the cost of genetic medicines by a factor of 10 through a combination of new funding models, improved manufacturing, and alternative IP licensing approaches.[64][65][66][67]

CRISPR education

edit

In addition to CRISPR research, the IGI works to advance public understanding of CRISPR and genome engineering and guide the ethical use of these technologies. Free public resources include:

  • CRISPRpedia — a free textbook-style resource for learning about the biology, applications, and ethics of CRISPR and genome editing, with chapters edited by Doudna, Urnov, Ronald, and other IGI investigators.[68][69]
  • CRISPR Made Simple — an educational guide to CRISPR for younger students and teachers.[70]
  • CasPEDIA — a wiki-style database of the known CRISPR-associated (Cas) proteins, their activity and use cases, launched in 2023 by a group of researchers at the IGI.[71]
  • CRISPR Clinical Trials — an annual summary of CRISPR-based therapies currently in clinical trials, broken down by disease area.[72]
  • CRISPR in Agriculture — a summary of the progress in developing CRISPR applications in food and agriculture.[73]

References

edit
  1. ^ a b c d "CRISPR pioneer Doudna envisions ending asthma, aiding climate". Marketplace. Retrieved 2023-12-29.
  2. ^ a b c "Launch of new genomics initiative draws enthusiastic industry, academic partners". Berkeley. 2022. Retrieved 2023-12-29.
  3. ^ a b Taylor, Ian (2021-11-10). "CRISPR: A guide to the health revolution that will define the 21st century". BBC Science Focus. Retrieved 2024-01-05.
  4. ^ "About Us". Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI). Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  5. ^ Wu, Katherine J.; Zimmer, Carl; Peltier, Elian (2020-10-07). "Nobel Prize in Chemistry Awarded to 2 Scientists for Work on Genome Editing". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  6. ^ Pollack, Andrew (2015-05-11). "Jennifer Doudna, a Pioneer Who Helped Simplify Genome Editing". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 2024-01-05.
  7. ^ Vuksanaj, Kathy (2023-10-27). "Engineering CRISPR Cures: An Interview with Fyodor Urnov". GEN - Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  8. ^ Corbyn, Zoë (2015-12-02). "Research Biology's Big Hit". Nature. 528 (7580): S4–S5. Bibcode:2015Natur.528S...4C. doi:10.1038/528S4a. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 26630597.
  9. ^ "Leadership". Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI). Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  10. ^ a b Stone, Madeleine (2022-07-13). "Can we hack DNA in plants to help fight climate change?". National Geographic. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  11. ^ "Brad Ringeisen Appointed as New Executive Director of IGI". Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI). Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  12. ^ Hummel, Kristina (2022-04-27). "A View from the CT Foxhole: Brad Ringeisen, Executive Director, Innovative Genomics Institute". Combating Terrorism Center at West Point. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  13. ^ Jinek, Martin; Chylinski, Krzysztof; Fonfara, Ines; Hauer, Michael; Doudna, Jennifer A.; Charpentier, Emmanuelle (2012-08-17). "A Programmable Dual-RNA–Guided DNA Endonuclease in Adaptive Bacterial Immunity". Science. 337 (6096): 816–821. Bibcode:2012Sci...337..816J. doi:10.1126/science.1225829. ISSN 0036-8075. PMC 6286148. PMID 22745249.
  14. ^ a b "The Nobel Prize in Chemistry 2020". NobelPrize.org. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  15. ^ Doudna, Jennifer A.; Sternberg, Samuel H. (2017). A crack in creation: gene editing and the unthinkable power to control evolution. Boston New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Harcourt. ISBN 978-0-544-71694-0.
  16. ^ a b c Isaacson, Walter (2022). The code breaker: Jennifer Doudna, gene editing, and the future of the human race. New York London Toronto Sydney New Delhi: Simon & Schuster Paperbacks. ISBN 978-1-9821-1586-9.
  17. ^ a b "How Jennifer Doudna's Life Has Changed Since Discovering CRISPR 10 Years Ago". TIME. 2022-07-01. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  18. ^ Greta (2017-12-01). "Jennifer Doudna Talks CRISPR Origins, Implications with NPR's Joe Palca". Biosciences Area. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  19. ^ "New DNA-Editing Technology Spawns Bold UC Initiative". Li Ka Shing Foundation. 2014-03-18. Retrieved 2023-12-29.
  20. ^ a b "Innovative Genomics Initiative Officially Launches Today". Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI). Retrieved 2023-12-29.
  21. ^ "AstraZeneca announces collaborations to use CRISPR technology for genome editing across its drug discovery platform". AstraZeneca. 2015-01-29. Retrieved 2023-12-28.
  22. ^ "CRISPR research institute expands into agriculture, microbiology". Berkeley. 2022. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  23. ^ "Pioneering Researcher Jonathan Weissman Joins Whitehead Institute | Whitehead Institute". Whitehead Institute of MIT. 3 March 2020. Retrieved 2023-12-29.
  24. ^ "As coronavirus spreads, UC Berkeley suspends in-person instruction". Berkeley. 2022. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  25. ^ Raguso, Emilie (2020-03-09). "UC Berkeley to suspend 'most in-person classes' starting Tuesday to limit coronavirus risk". Berkeleyside. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  26. ^ "IGI Launches Major Automated COVID-19 Diagnostic Testing Initiative". Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI). Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  27. ^ "Campus lab takes COVID-19 testing to utility workers, underserved". Berkeley. 2022. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  28. ^ Yong, Ed (2020-12-14). "How Science Beat the Virus". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  29. ^ "IGI Awards $1 Million to COVID-19 Rapid Response Research Projects". Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI). Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  30. ^ "Jennifer Doudna on how covid-19 is spurring science to accelerate". The Economist. ISSN 0013-0613. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  31. ^ "UC Berkeley's Jennifer Doudna wins 2020 Nobel Prize in Chemistry". Berkeley. 2022. Retrieved 2023-12-29.
  32. ^ Cohen, John (2020-10-07). "CRISPR, the revolutionary genetic 'scissors,' honored by Chemistry Nobel". Science. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  33. ^ "Jennifer Doudna's Nobel Prize ceremony was a day to remember". Berkeley. 2022. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  34. ^ "UC Berkeley campus reacts to this week's two Nobel Prize wins | Research UC Berkeley". vcresearch.berkeley.edu. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  35. ^ Markovich, Ally (2023-10-31). "Cal plans to build 'innovation zone' with 2 big lab buildings in downtown Berkeley". Berkeleyside. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  36. ^ "New Gene Editing Tools". Doudna Lab. Retrieved 2024-01-05.
  37. ^ "CRISPR 2.0 Is Here, and It's Way More Precise". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  38. ^ Molteni, Megan. "Crispr Isn't Enough Any More. Get Ready for Gene Editing 2.0". Wired. ISSN 1059-1028. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  39. ^ Burstein, David; Harrington, Lucas B.; Strutt, Steven C.; Probst, Alexander J.; Anantharaman, Karthik; Thomas, Brian C.; Doudna, Jennifer A.; Banfield, Jillian F. (2016-12-22). "New CRISPR–Cas systems from uncultivated microbes". Nature. 542 (7640): 237–241. doi:10.1038/nature21059. ISSN 1476-4687. PMC 5300952. PMID 28005056.
  40. ^ "Compact CRISPR systems found in some of world's smallest microbes". Berkeley. 2022. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  41. ^ Pausch, Patrick; Al-Shayeb, Basem; Bisom-Rapp, Ezra; Tsuchida, Connor A.; Li, Zheng; Cress, Brady F.; Knott, Gavin J.; Jacobsen, Steven E.; Banfield, Jillian F.; Doudna, Jennifer A. (2020-07-17). "CRISPR-CasΦ from huge phages is a hypercompact genome editor". Science. 369 (6501): 333–337. Bibcode:2020Sci...369..333P. doi:10.1126/science.abb1400. ISSN 1095-9203. PMC 8207990. PMID 32675376.
  42. ^ "Scientists Find New Compact Genome Editors in Viruses". Crop Biotech Update. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  43. ^ Hamilton, Jennifer R.; Tsuchida, Connor A.; Nguyen, David N.; Shy, Brian R.; McGarrigle, E. Riley; Sandoval Espinoza, Cindy R.; Carr, Daniel; Blaeschke, Franziska; Marson, Alexander; Doudna, Jennifer A. (2021-06-01). "Targeted delivery of CRISPR-Cas9 and transgenes enables complex immune cell engineering". Cell Reports. 35 (9): 109207. doi:10.1016/j.celrep.2021.109207. ISSN 2211-1247. PMC 8236216. PMID 34077734.
  44. ^ "News: DNA Origami Unfolds as a New CRISPR Delivery System". CRISPR Medicine. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  45. ^ Hamilton, Jennifer R.; Chen, Evelyn; Perez, Barbara S.; Espinoza, Cindy R. Sandoval; Kang, Min Hyung; Trinidad, Marena; Doudna, Jennifer A. (2023-04-02), Programmable enveloped delivery vehicles for human genome engineering in vivo, doi:10.1101/2022.08.24.505004, S2CID 257927514, retrieved 2024-01-04
  46. ^ Tsuchida, Connor A.; Brandes, Nadav; Bueno, Raymund; Trinidad, Marena; Mazumder, Thomas; Yu, Bingfei; Hwang, Byungjin; Chang, Christopher; Liu, Jamin; Sun, Yang; Hopkins, Caitlin R.; Parker, Kevin R.; Qi, Yanyan; Hofman, Laura; Satpathy, Ansuman T. (2023-10-12). "Mitigation of chromosome loss in clinical CRISPR-Cas9-engineered T cells". Cell. 186 (21): 4567–4582.e20. doi:10.1016/j.cell.2023.08.041. ISSN 0092-8674. PMC 10664023. PMID 37794590.
  47. ^ Vuksanaj, Kathy (2023-10-27). "Engineering CRISPR Cures: An Interview with Fyodor Urnov". GEN - Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  48. ^ "FDA approves first test of CRISPR to correct genetic defect causing sickle cell disease". Berkeley. 2022. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  49. ^ Thomas, Uduak (2023-11-28). "Cancer Shredder Utilizes CRISPR, Targets Glioblastoma". GEN - Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  50. ^ "CRISPR Cures for Cancer: Partnership to Accelerate Cell Therapy Using Genomics". UCSF Helen Diller Family Comprehensive Cancer Center. 2023-12-15. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  51. ^ CRISPR Breakthroughs for Neurological Disease, 16 April 2021, retrieved 2024-01-04
  52. ^ "$22 million NIH award will accelerate 'CRISPR' research at UC Berkeley, Ohio State". wexnermedical.osu.edu. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  53. ^ "New CRISPR-based COVID-19 test uses smartphone cameras to spot virus RNA". University of California. 2020-12-09. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  54. ^ MacNeil, Matt (2021-08-05). "Using two CRISPR enzymes, a COVID diagnostic in only 20 minutes". UC Berkeley Public Health. Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  55. ^ LiveScience, Laura Geggel. "Can Gene Editing Save the World's Chocolate?". Scientific American. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  56. ^ Prabhune, Meenakshi (2022-02-14). "Scientists are Using CRISPR to Save Chocolate". Synthego. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  57. ^ Gomez, Michael A.; Berkoff, Kodiak C.; Gill, Baljeet K.; Iavarone, Anthony T.; Lieberman, Samantha E.; Ma, Jessica M.; Schultink, Alex; Karavolias, Nicholas G.; Wyman, Stacia K.; Chauhan, Raj Deepika; Taylor, Nigel J.; Staskawicz, Brian J.; Cho, Myeong-Je; Rokhsar, Daniel S.; Lyons, Jessica B. (2022). "CRISPR-Cas9-mediated knockout of CYP79D1 and CYP79D2 in cassava attenuates toxic cyanogen production". Frontiers in Plant Science. 13: 1079254. doi:10.3389/fpls.2022.1079254. ISSN 1664-462X. PMC 10064795. PMID 37007603.
  58. ^ "Inside the Project to Genetically Modify Rice to Emit Fewer Greenhouse Gases". TIME. 2022-01-03. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  59. ^ "In 10 years, CRISPR transformed medicine. Can it now help us deal with climate change?". Berkeley. 2022. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  60. ^ chadcampbell (2022-06-14). "Supercharging Plants and Soils to Address Climate Change". Chan Zuckerberg Initiative. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  61. ^ Philippidis, Alex (2023-04-20). "IGI Wins $70 Million to Study Microbiome Engineering for Health, Climate Challenges". GEN - Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology News. Retrieved 2023-12-29.
  62. ^ "Innovative Genomics Institute | The Audacious Project". audaciousproject.org. Retrieved 2023-12-29.
  63. ^ Doudna, Jennifer A. (2022-09-12). "Starting a Revolution Isn't Enough". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  64. ^ Venkataraman, Bina (2023-12-28). "Opinion | What a new genetic therapy should teach us about biomedical 'progress'". Washington Post. ISSN 0190-8286. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  65. ^ Witkowsky, Lea; Norstad, Matthew; Glynn, Audrey R.; Kliegman, Melinda (2023-11-08). "Towards affordable CRISPR genomic therapies: a task force convened by the Innovative Genomics Institute". Gene Therapy. 30 (10): 747–752. doi:10.1038/s41434-023-00392-3. ISSN 1476-5462. PMC 10678297. PMID 37935852.
  66. ^ Leuty, Ron (2023-07-25). "Cheaper, more accessible cell, gene therapies? Nobel winner's task force points the way". San Francisco Business Times. Retrieved 2024-01-03.
  67. ^ "Making Genetic Therapies Affordable and Accessible: IGI's New Recommendations". Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI). Retrieved 2024-01-04.
  68. ^ Ladenheim, Andrew (2022-10-04). "CRISPR-pedia: Everything you need to know about gene-editing our way to a lower-carbon, more productive farming future". Genetic Literacy Project. Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  69. ^ "CRISPRpedia now Online!". InnovATEBIO. 2022-09-18. Retrieved 2024-01-05.
  70. ^ "CRISPR Made Simple". Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI). Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  71. ^ Adler, Benjamin A; Trinidad, Marena I; Bellieny-Rabelo, Daniel; Zhang, Elaine; Karp, Hannah M; Skopintsev, Petr; Thornton, Brittney W; Weissman, Rachel F; Yoon, Peter H; Chen, LinXing; Hessler, Tomas; Eggers, Amy R; Colognori, David; Boger, Ron; Doherty, Erin E (2023-10-27). "CasPEDIA Database: a functional classification system for class 2 CRISPR-Cas enzymes". Nucleic Acids Research. 52 (D1): D590–D596. doi:10.1093/nar/gkad890. ISSN 0305-1048. PMC 10767948. PMID 37889041.
  72. ^ "CRISPR Clinical Trials: A 2023 Update". Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI). Retrieved 2023-12-30.
  73. ^ "CRISPR in Agriculture: 2022 in Review". Innovative Genomics Institute (IGI). Retrieved 2023-12-30.
edit
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Innovative_Genomics_Institute&oldid=1249234888"