Hoava language

Hoava
Hoava
Native to	Solomon Islands
Region	Marovo Lagoon (Nggerasi Lagoon), New Georgia Island
Native speakers	(460 cited 1999)
Language family	Austronesian Malayo-Polynesian Oceanic Northwest Solomonic New Georgia – Ysabel New Georgia Hoava; ; ; ; ; ;
Language codes
ISO 639-3	hoa
Glottolog	hoav1238
ELP	Hoava
	Hoava is classified as Vulnerable by the UNESCO Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger

Hoava is an Oceanic language spoken by 1000–1500 people on New Georgia Island, Solomon Islands. Speakers of Hoava are multilingual and usually also speak Roviana, Marovo, Solomon Islands Pijin, English.^{[clarification needed]}

Introduction

History

Hoava is an Austronesian language that is spoken mostly on the island of New Georgia. New Georgia is a mountainous island, 85 kilometres long and 41 kilometres wide at its widest part, with a total area of 2,145 square kilometres (828 sq mi), covered with dense rainforests (Davis 2003). The island was involved in a series of World War II battles, later named the New Georgia Campaign, which lasted from June 20 to November 3, 1943.^{[citation needed]}

Population

Hoava is an Austronesian language that is spoken in three known locations: Western Province, New Georgia Island, and North Marovo lagoon, but mainly New Georgia Island. According to a 1986 census there are about 2,360 speakers of the language, but as of the 1999 census, the language is spoken by 460 people, suggesting a huge decline in the number of speakers.

Phonology

Consonant inventory

Hoava uses 16 consonants in its phoneme system, /p, t, b, d, s, β, m, n, r, l, dʒ, k, g, ɣ, ŋ, h/.


		Bilabial	(Post) alv	Velar	Glottal
Plosive	voiceless	p	t	k
Plosive	voiced	b	d	g
Nasal		m	n	ŋ
Fricative		β	s	ɣ	h
Affricate			ʤ
Approximant			l
Trill			r

Vowel inventory

Hoava uses five vowels: /i, ɛ, a, ɔ, u/. There is no phonemic distinction of vowel length, although vowels can be lengthened when stressed (Davis 2003). The vowels can be combined into pairs with the weight of two syllables (Davis 2003).


	Front	Back
High	i	u
Mid	ɛ	ɔ
Low	a

Syllable structure

Hoava has an open syllable structure of (C)V. Two vowels occurring together are counted as two syllables, since they function as such for transitive marking rules (Davis 2003). For many Oceanic languages of the Austronesian family group it is common that words do not end in consonants.

Syntax

Basic word order

In traditional typology Hoava is a verb–subject–object (VSO) language. There are some modifications to this particular pattern for focusing and topicalization purposes (Davis 2003).

Morphology

Reduplication

Reduplication is frequently used in Hoava as a method of word formation, to express intensification, and to form the progressive aspect of a verb (Davis 2003). Reduplication is used to create words denoting entities related to the referent of the source word, either as part of the entity, or having a resemblance to it, or being a metaphorical extension" (Davis 2003).

bui 'lost'; bu-bui 'forgot'
yasa 'jump'; yasa-yasa 'jumping'

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Information in the following sections is based on Davis 2003:45-109,^[2] unless otherwise stated. Subsequent references give only relevant page numbers and figures.

In Hoava there exist three sets of characteristics in order to distinguish which personal pronoun is to be used. This includes whether the pronoun is first, second or third person; the plurality needed; whether it is singular or plural and whether it is inclusive or exclusive.

Personal pronouns
^{(pg. 46, Figure 63)} ^[2]
		Singular	Plural
1st person	exclusive	rao	gami
1st person	inclusive	rao	gita
2nd person		goe	gamu
3rd person		i(sa)	ria

There are a number of extra circumstances and exceptions which are also present when discussing the use of personal pronouns. One specific example of this is the third-person singular form isa, which is used as an emphatic (forcible) form or used to refer to a particular topic. Speakers of Hoava tend to use sa for a more general pronoun.

The third-person pronoun eri is used with a dual form created by using the number 'two' karu after a plural pronoun. A trial form is also created by using the number 'three' prefix ka-hike. The dual forms are obligatory whereas trial forms can be replaced by a simple plural.

Forms specific for four people are common when it is significant to know that four people were involved. The number 'four' follows the pronoun with the number prefix added, e.g. gita ka-made, gami ka-made. Other numbers can be substituted into a sentence in the same matter. When these dual or numerical forms are used, it is most commonly at the start of a narrative to add the names of the others in the group. This does not include the speaker themselves. These pronoun forms can come before a noun phrase in apposition.

Sagele

go.up

pule

return

mae

come

eri

PRO:3PL

karu.

two

'They (two) came back up.' ^{(Pg 47, Figure 68)} ^[2]

Some other characteristics to note with the use of pronouns in Hoava are that pronouns can be followed by demonstratives and by the restrictive particle qa; an example of this can be seen below.

There exist some cases in Hoava in which it is not completely necessary for a pronoun to be present or where exceptions to the use of pronouns exist. Firstly, it is common for the pronoun to be dropped from a sentence completely once it has been made clear who is being referred to, or if it is clear who is being referred to by other information such as object markers. Also, the dropping of pronouns referring to animate objects is predominantly done with first-person singular and plural and second-person plural pronouns in object position, as the object marker on the verb is the same as the pronoun.

Inanimate objects in Hoava do not often have a pronominal reference, a construction which resembles a pronoun to identify the object. However, it is possible to use a pronoun for an inanimate object even though it is rare.

In Hoava there exist no reflexive forms of the pronouns. In order to create the same meaning as a reflexive, the verb pule (meaning 'return') is used. "There is no subject or object pronoun used, other than the object marker on the applicative suffix...in any of the sentences elicited with the pule used in this manner." (pg.49) ^[2]

Vaquru

new

teqe

cut

pule-ni-rao

return-AP-1SG

qa.

REST

'I've just cut myself.' ^{(Pg 49, Figure 78b)} ^[2]

As seen in the example above, pule has been used with the applicable suffix and the singular exclusive first-person pronoun rao to create the meaning of the reflexive form 'I've'. Also, the pronoun is followed by the restrictive particle qa, which is a characteristic that was mentioned earlier to sometimes occur with the use of pronouns.

The morpheme tale- can also be used in the instances mentioned above, but rather than performing a reflexive function, it acts as an emphasis that no other people were involved apart from the speaker.

Vaquru

new

teqe

cut

pule-ni-a

return-AP-3SG

tale-na.

alone-3SG

'(She) has just cut herself.' ^{(Pg. 49, Figure 79)} ^[2]

Within the lexicon of Hoava there are some verbs which have an inherent reflexive meaning built in and therefore the use of an extra form which suggests that it is reflexive is not needed. These are verbs which automatically mean performing an action to oneself, such as hele 'wash oneself' or viraka 'scratch (oneself)'.

Demonstrative pronouns

In Hoava there exists a three-way spatial differentiation of deixis. This includes proximal, close to the speaker; distal, close to the hearer; and remote, distant for the speaker and the hearer. Of the three sets of demonstratives in Hoava, two sets concern the use of pronouns: a set of long forms that are used as both noun modifiers and as demonstrative pronouns and another set which is restricted to being used only as demonstrative pronouns. An extra set of 'near to hearer' long demonstratives is also used both as a noun modifier and demonstrative pronoun. These sets all have both singular and plural forms which can be used.

Long demonstratives
^{(Pg. 81)} ^[2]
	Singular	Plural
proximal (close to speaker)	heni	heri
distal (close to hearer)	sani	sari
remote (distant)	hunai	huari

These long demonstratives can act as demonstrative pronouns at the beginning of a noun phrase.

An example of the use of long demonstratives is as follows:

Heri

PROX:PL

ria

ART:PL

nikana

man

vihe.

choose

'These are the chosen men.' ^{(pg.85, figure 204d)} ^[2]

It is more common in Hoava for the morphemes isana and tiara to be used in place as demonstrative pronouns in favour of the singular distal demonstratives sani and the plural sari. It is also not common for the remote demonstratives Huani and Huari to be used.

Hoava has a set of short demonstratives, which are a group of particles found after the noun head of a noun phrase. They have the noun-modifying function of adding a sense of definiteness and they may also signify tense. They can be used with common nouns, names, and pronouns.

Short demonstratives
^{(Pg 87. Figure 212)} ^[2]
	Singular	Plural
Close	ni	ri
Distant	na	ra
Remote/past	so	ro

For example, a short demonstrative follows a personal pronoun:

Kolo,

friend

na

ART

sa

what

taveti-a

do.TR-3SG

gamu

PRO:2PL

na?

DEM

'Friend, what are you doing?' ^{(pg.87, figure 213c)} ^[2]

The long demonstratives mentioned above cannot occur after the emphatic particles ba and ga as another set of emphatic demonstrative pronouns exist for that case. This other set is used also in questions or as an alternative to the long forms.

Emphatic demonstratives
^{(Pg. 93, Figure 232)} ^[2]
		Singular	Plural
Visible	Near speaker	pi	piri
	Near hearer	sana	sara
	Distant	pu	puru
Not visible		si	siri

Na

ART

sa

what

heni?

PRO:SG

Na

ART

binu

lime

ba

EMPH

sana.

DIST:SG

'What is this?' 'That's lime!' ^{(pg.94. figure 237b)} ^[2]

Possessive pronouns

Hoava has a set of possessive pronouns which are used at the head of a noun phrase before the item which is being possessed. They are used in cases of exclusive possession.

Possessive pronouns
^{(Pg. 104, Figure 263)} ^[2]
		Singular	Plural
1st person	exclusive	qua	mami
1st person	inclusive	qua	nada
2nd person		mua	mi
3rd person		nana	dia

Mami

POSS:1PL.EX

gugusu

village

'our village'

Na

ART

dia

POSS:3PL

sanu

thing

koe-di

old-3PL

'Their old things' ^{(Pg. 104. Figure 264 a and c)} ^[2]

Person marking

Hoava has two optional articles, E and se, which may or may not be used with personal names or personified animals and birds. These articles are used before the name and although Se is more likely to be used over E, neither example is completely necessary and can be dropped.

Samu Gobe

misianare

teacher

tami

POSS:1PL.EX

gami

PRO:1PL.EX

'Our teacher was Samu Gobe.' ^{(Pg. 59, Figure114b)} ^[2]

Negation

Hoava has four types of sentential negation; kipu, kae, kahi and maki. All of these negative particles are placed before the predicate.

The negator kipu

The negator kipu expresses factual negation, whereby the speaker claims that what they are saying is correct. As shown below, kipu can be used in past and present events. These are asserted to be factual.

Kipu

NEG

gilalí

know.TR:3PL

rao

PRO:1SG

vivine-di

story-3PL

ria

PRO:3PL

ra.

DEM

'I don't know the stories of them.'

Saonae

long.time

kipu

NEG

pule

return

sa

ART.SG

loa-na.

spouse-3SG

'Her husband did not return for a long time.'

Kipu

NEG

isa

PRO:3SG

qa

REST

sa

ART:SG

pakupaku.

necklace

'It's not the necklace.' ^{(Pg. 243, Figure 68a, b and c)} ^[2]

However, kipu can also be used to indicate future events that are expected to be true. Note that kipu can both precede and follow the future particle.

Pula

if

ve,

like

koni

FUT

kipu

NEG

ta-va-mate.

PASS-CAUS-be.dead

'If so, (he) will not be killed.'

Kipu

NEG

koni

FUT

tavetí

make.TR:3PL

ria

PRO:3PL

ba

EMPH

sara.

those

'They will not make those.' ^{(Pg. 243, Figure 69a and b)} ^[2]

Below, kipu is placed after the definite article of a nominal predicate:

Se

ART

Matakale

M.

sagi

TOP

na

ART

kipu

NEG

tu-na

child-3SG

sa

ART:SG

nikana

man

so.

PAST:SG

'Matakale, he was not a son of man.' ^{(Pg. 243, Figure 70)} ^[2]

In cases where a noun phrase is placed before the verb phrase or noun phrase predicate, kipu is not fronted.

Ria

PRO:3PL

pa

PRP

Vareso,

V.

ria

PRO:3PL

kipu

NEG

ṉaní

eat.TR:3PL

sa.

PRO:3SG

'Those from Vareso, them he did not eat.' ^{(Pg. 243, Figure 71)} ^[2]

Na

ART

koburu

child

isana

that

kipu

NEG

tiqu-a

tough-TR:3SG

hinaquru.

girl

'That child, girls didn't touch him.' ^{(Pg. 243, Figure 72)} ^[2]

Kipu can also be found within imperative clauses:

Veko-a,

leave-TR:3SG

kipu

NEG

ilisoqo-a.

hurt-TR:3SG

'Leave him, don't hurt him.' ^{(Pg. 243, Figure 73)} ^[2]

The negator kae

The negator kae is occasionally shortened in Kusaghe to ke. It is used to emphasise events and states that are not possible, not allowed or which run counter to the usual state of affairs.

Kae is used to mark events and states that are not possible due to some factor which prevents their occurrence.

Isa

PRO-3SG

sa

PRO:3SG

pu

REL

kae

NEG

dugili-ni-a

be.deaf-AP-3SG

Pilipi.

Pilipi

'That's what stops Pilipi from being deaf.' ^{(Pg. 244, Figure 74a)} ^[2]

Prohibitions can also use kae. Similar to kipu which can be used with imperatives, kae can also be used to display everyday imperatives which are generally used towards children.

Kae

NEG

kabo.

cry

'Don't cry.'

Kae

NEG

do=dola

REDUP=stare

la-ia

go-TR:3SG

ṉina

possibly

goe

PRO:2SG

se

ART

Maqiqo

Mangginggo

na.

DEM

'Don't you go staring at that Mangginggo.' ^{(Pg. 244, Figure 76a and b)} ^[2]

Another use of kae is when an event of state is not the expected one, such as an event that was expected to happen but did not.

Kae

NEG

atu

go.to.you

velu

yesterday

ba

EMPH

rao

PRO:1SG

so.

PAST:SG

'I did not come to you yesterday.' ^{(Pg. 245, Figure 78)} ^[2]

Kae can also be used for hypothetical events that are not generally expected to occur.

Pula

if

vena

SIM

kae

NEG

ta-poka

PASS-be.nailed

labete,

board

doluru

all

kasitoṉa

thing

heri,

these

koni

FUT

uke

fall

qa

REST

sa

ART:SG

kabasa.

house

'If boards, all these things, are not nailed, the house will fall.' ^{(Pg. 245, Figure 80a)} ^[2]

Contradictory statements is often expressed using the phrase kae gua, which means 'not so, not as stated'.

“Vegoa,

how

solodia

soldier

goe

PRO:2SG

ni?”

DEM

gua

said

isa.

PRO:3SG

“Kari,

no

solodia

soldier

kae

NEG

gua.”

said

'“What, are you a soldier?” he said. “No, (I'm) not a soldier.”' ^{(Pg. 246, Figure 82a)} ^[2]

The negator kahi

Kahi which means 'not yet' is a negator used to express the likelihood that an event or state will occur, despite not having taken place yet at the point in time referred to. Kahi, like the other negative particles, can be seen to precede the verb phrase.

Kipu

NEG

hana

anyhow

ṉani

bite

pu

COND

kahi

not.yet

varavara,

pray

mi

but

varavara

pray

paki

first

tu

REST

tiqe

then

ṉani

bite

qa.

REST

'(You) don't eat if have not yet prayed, but pray first and then eat.' ^{(Pg. 247, Figure 84a)} ^[2]

The modal negator maki

Maki is a modal negative particle which expresses the desire of the speaker that negative consequences of an event do not occur. It is placed immediately before the verb phrase.

Maki

NEG:WARN

ta-ṉani

PASS-bite

leboto.

machete

'Don't be hurt by the machete.'

Maki

NEG:WARN

uke

fall

goe.

PRO:2SG

'Don't you fall.' ^{(Pg. 247, Figure 85)} ^[2]

Numerals

Hoava has a decimal system of numbering (Davis 2003).

keke 'one'
karua 'two'
hike 'three'
made 'four'
lima 'five'
onomo 'six'
zuapa 'seven'
vesu 'eight'
sia 'nine'
manege 'ten'

Lexicology

Indigenous vocabulary

hore 'canoe'
leboto 'bushknife'
igana 'fish'
inebara 'feast'
pirae 'now'
tavete 'make'
keke 'one'
mae 'come'
toka 'follow'
puta 'sleep'
gua 'did'
heleana 'river'
ko 'be'
tala 'where'
la 'go'
koburu 'child'
ome 'see'

Endangerment

Materials

There are not many materials written in Hoava. The only material of outside world access is a guide to grammar by Karen Davis and a storybook, which is only beginning to fall out of use. There are translations of the Bible and stories but not much else is known about surviving materials.

Vitality

According to Ethnologue, Hoava has a 6b (Yellow) endangerment status. "Intergenerational transmission is in the process of being broken, but the childbearing generation can still use the language so it is possible that revitalization efforts could restore transmission of the language in the home" (Lewis 2013). Without intergenerational transfer, main outlet uses will soon be destroyed or fade away while other languages take its place. With the decrease of L1 speakers, the value of the language in the community will only drop until it is no longer applicable to the community. Combined with the low number of speakers, if no action is to take place, Hoava will fade to away into disuse.

References

^ Hoava at Ethnologue (18th ed., 2015) (subscription required)
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab Davis 2003, pp. 45–109

Davis, Karen (2003). A Grammar of the Hoava language, Western Solomons. Pacific Linguistics 535. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. doi:10.15144/PL-535. hdl:1885/146158. ISBN 978-0-85883-502-3.

Hoava language

Contents

Introduction

History

Population

Phonology

Consonant inventory

Vowel inventory

Syllable structure

Syntax

Basic word order

Morphology

Reduplication

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

Demonstrative pronouns

Possessive pronouns

Person marking

Negation

The negator kipu

The negator kae

The negator kahi

The modal negator maki

Numerals

Lexicology

Indigenous vocabulary

Endangerment

Materials

Vitality

References

Further reading