The Grand National Assembly of Turkey (Turkish: Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi [tyɾcije byjyc milːet medʒlisi]), usually referred to simply as the TBMM or Parliament (Turkish: Meclis or Parlamento), is the unicameral Turkish legislature. It is the sole body given the legislative prerogatives by the Turkish Constitution. It was founded in Ankara on 23 April 1920 amid the National Campaign. This constitution had founded its pre-government known as 1st Executive Ministers of Turkey (Commitment Deputy Committee) in May 1920. The parliament was fundamental in the efforts of Mareşal Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, 1st President of the Republic of Turkey, and his colleagues to found a new state out of the remnants of the Ottoman Empire.
Grand National Assembly of Turkey Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi | |
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28th Parliament of Turkey | |
![]() Seal of the Turkish Parliament | |
Type | |
Type | |
History | |
Founded | 23 April 1920 |
Preceded by | 23 December 1876 as General Assembly |
Leadership | |
Government Group Leader | |
Main Opposition Group Leader | |
Structure | |
Seats | 600 1 non-voting member |
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Political groups | Government (266)
Opposition (273)
Vacant (7)
|
Committees | 19 committees |
Length of term | 5 years |
Authority | Constitution of Turkey |
Salary | ₺125,349 monthly[1] |
Elections | |
Closed list proportional representation (D'Hondt method with a 7% electoral threshold) | |
Last election | 14 May 2023 |
Next election | No later than 2028 |
Redistricting | Supreme Election Council |
Motto | |
Egemenlik kayıtsız şartsız Milletindir Sovereignty unconditionally belongs to the Nation | |
Meeting place | |
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General Assembly Hall Grand National Assembly of Turkey 06543, Bakanlıklar Ankara, Turkey | |
Website | |
global | |
Constitution | |
Constitution of Turkey |
Composition
editThere are 600 members of parliament (deputies) who are elected for a five-year term by the D'Hondt method, a party-list proportional representation system, from 87 electoral districts which represent the 81 administrative provinces of Turkey (Istanbul and Ankara are divided into three electoral districts whereas İzmir and Bursa are divided into two each because of its large populations). To avoid a hung parliament and its excessive political fragmentation, from 1982 to 2022, a party must have won at least 10% of the national vote to qualify for representation in the parliament,[2] but in 2022 this was reduced to 7%.[3]As a result of the 10% threshold, only two parties won seats in the legislature after the 2002 elections and three in 2007. The 2002 elections saw every party represented in the previous parliament ejected from the chamber and parties representing 46.3% of the voter turnout were excluded from being represented in parliament.[2] This threshold has been criticized, but a complaint with the European Court for Human Rights was turned down.[4]
Independent candidates may also run[5] and can be elected without needing a threshold.[6]
Speaker of the parliament
editA new term in the parliament began on 2 June 2023, after the June 2023 General Elections. Devlet Bahçeli from the MHP temporarily served as the speaker, as it is customary for the oldest member of the TBMM to serve as speaker during a hung parliament. Numan Kurtulmuş was elected after the snap elections on 07 June 2023.[7]
Languages
editThe parliament's minutes are translated into the four languages: Arabic, Russian, English and French, but not in the Kurdish language which is the second most spoken native language in Turkey.[8] Though phrases in the Kurdish language can be permitted, whole speeches remain forbidden.[9]
Members (since 1999)
edit- Members elected in 1999 (21st Parliament)
- Members elected in 2002 (22nd Parliament)
- Members elected in 2007 (23rd Parliament)
- Members elected in 2011 (24th Parliament)
- Members elected in June 2015 (25th Parliament)
- Members elected in November 2015 (26th Parliament)
- Members elected in 2018 (27th Parliament)
- Members elected in 2023 (28th Parliament)
Parliamentary groups
editParties who have at least 20 deputies may form a parliamentary group. Currently there are six parliamentary groups at the GNAT: AK Party, which has the highest number of seats, CHP, MHP, Good Party, DEM, and Felicity.[10]
Committees
editSpecialized committees
edit- Justice Committee (27 members)[11]
- Constitution Committee (26 members)[12]
- Committee for Harmonization with the European Union (27 members)[13]
- Public Works, Zoning, Transportation, and Tourism Committee (26 members)[14]
- Environment Committee (26 members)[15]
- Foreign Affairs Committee (25 members)[16]
- Digital Media Committee (17 members)[17]
- Petitions Committee (12 members)[18]
- Security and Intelligence Committee (17 members)[19]
- Internal Affairs Committee (26 members)[20]
- Committee for the Inspection of Human Rights (25 members)[21]
- Committee for Equal Opportunities for Women and Men (26 members)[26]
- State-owned Enterprises Committee (35 members)[27]
- National Education, Culture, Youth, and Sports committee (26 members)[28]
- National Defense Committee (26 members)[29]
- Planning and Budgeting Committee (30 members)[30]
- Health, Family, Employment, and Social Affairs Committee (27 members)[31]
- Industry, Commerce, Energy, Natural Resources, Information, and Technology Committee (26 members)[32]
- Agriculture, Forestry, and Rural Works Committee (26 members)[33]
Parliamentary research committees
editThese committees are one of auditing tools of the Parliament. The research can begin upon the demand of the Government, political party groups or min 20 MPs. The duty is assigned to a committee whose number of members, duration of work and location of work is determined by the proposal of the Parliamentary Speaker and the approval of the General Assembly.[34][35]
Parliamentary investigation committees
editThese committees are established if any investigation demand re the president, vice president, and ministers occur and approved by the General Assembly through hidden voting.[35]
International committees
edit- Parliamentary Assembly of the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (8 members)[36]
- NATO Parliamentary Assembly (18 members)[37]
- Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (18 members)[38]
- Turkey — European Union Joint Parliamentary Committee (25 members)[39]
- Parliamentary Union of the OIC Member States (5 members)[40]
- Asian Parliamentary Assembly (5 members)[41]
- Parliamentary Assembly of the Union for the Mediterranean (7 members)[42]
- Inter-parliamentary Union (9 members)[43]
- Parliamentary Assembly of the Black Sea Economic Cooperation (9 members)[44]
- Parliamentary Assembly of the Mediterranean (5 members)[45]
- Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic States (9 members)[46]
- Parliamentary Assembly of the Economic Cooperation Organization (5 members)[47]
- Parliamentary Assembly of the Southeast European Cooperation Process (6 members)[48]
- Andean Parliament (observer) (3 members)[49]
- Latin American Parliament (observer) (3 members)[50]
MPs can attend more than one committee if not a member of Petitions Committee or Planning and Budgeting Committee. Members of those committees can not participate in any other committees. On the other hand, MPs do not have to work for a committee either. Number of members of each committee is determined by the proposal of the Advisory Council and the approval of the General Assembly.[35]
Sub committees are established according to the issue that the committee receives. Only State-owned Enterprises (SOEs) Committee has constant sub committees that are specifically responsible for a group of SOEs.[35]
Committee meetings are open to the MPs, the Ministers' Board members and the Government representatives. The MPs and the Ministers' Board members can talk in the committees but can not make amendments proposals or vote. Every MP can read the reports of the committees.[35]
NGOs can attend the committee meetings upon the invitation of the committee therefore volunteer individual or public participation is not available. Media, but not the visual media, can attend the meetings. The media representatives are usually the parliamentary staff of the media institutions. The committees can prevent the attendance of the media with a joint decision.[51]
Current composition
editThe 28th Parliament of Turkey took office on 2 June 2023, following the ratification of the results of the general election held on 14 May 2023. The composition of the 28th Parliament, is shown below.
Parliament Building
editThe current Parliament Building is the third to house the nation's parliament. The building which first housed the Parliament was converted from the Ankara headquarters of the Committee of Union and Progress. Designed by architect Hasip Bey,[52] it was used until 1924 and is now used as the locale of the Museum of the War of Independence, the second building which housed the Parliament was designed by architect Vedat (Tek) Bey (1873–1942) and used from 1924 to 1960.[52] It is now been converted as the Museum of the Republic. The Grand National Assembly is now housed in a modern and imposing building in the Bakanlıklar neighborhood of Ankara.[53] The monumental building's project was designed by architect and professor Clemens Holzmeister (1886–1993).[52] The building was depicted on the reverse of the Turkish 50,000 lira banknotes of 1989–1999.[54] The building was hit by airstrikes three times during the 2016 Turkish coup d'état attempt, suffering noticeable damage. It went through a renovation in the summer of 2016.[55]
History
editTurkey has had a history of parliamentary government before the establishment of the current national parliament. These include attempts at curbing absolute monarchy during the Ottoman Empire through constitutional monarchy, as well as establishments of caretaker national assemblies immediately prior to the declaration of the Republic of Turkey in 1923 but after the de facto dissolution of the Ottoman Empire earlier in the decade.
Parliamentary practice before the Republican era
editOttoman Empire
editThere were two periods of parliamentary governance during the Ottoman Empire. The First Constitutional Era lasted for only two years, elections being held only twice. After the first elections, there were a number of criticisms of the government due to the Russo-Turkish War, 1877–1878 by the representatives, and the assembly was dissolved and an election called on 28 June 1877. The second assembly was also dissolved by the Sultan Abdul Hamid II on 14 February 1878, the result being the return of absolute monarchy with Abdul Hamid II in power and the suspension of the Ottoman constitution of 1876, which had come with the democratic reforms resulting in the First Constitutional Era.[56]
The Second Constitutional Era began on 23 July 1908 with the Young Turk Revolution. The constitution that was written for the first parliament included control of the sultan on the public and was removed during 1909, 1912, 1914 and 1916, in a session known as the "declaration of freedom". Most of the modern parliamentary rights that were not granted in the first constitution were granted, such as the abolition of the right of the Sultan to deport citizens that were claimed to have committed harmful activities, the establishment of a free press, a ban on censorship. Freedom to hold meetings and establish political parties was recognized, and the government was held responsible to the assembly, not to the sultan.[57]
During the two constitutional eras of the Ottoman Empire, the Ottoman parliament was called the General Assembly of the Ottoman Empire and was bicameral. The upper house was the Senate of the Ottoman Empire, the members of which were selected by the sultan.[58] The role of the Grand Vizier, the centuries-old top ministerial office in the empire, transformed in line with other European states into one identical to the office of a prime minister, as well as that of the speaker of the Senate. The lower chamber of the General Assembly was the Chamber of Deputies of the Ottoman Empire, the members of which were elected by the general public.[59]
Establishment of the National Assembly
editAfter World War I, the victorious Allied Powers sought the dismemberment of the Ottoman Empire through the Treaty of Sèvres.[60] The sovereign existence of the Turkish nation was to be eliminated under these plans, except for a small region. Nationalist Turkish sentiment rose in the Anatolian peninsula, engendering the establishment of the Turkish national movement. The political developments during this period have made a lasting impact which continues to affect the character of the Turkish nation. During the Turkish War of Independence, Mustafa Kemal put forth the notion that there would be only one way for the liberation of the Turkish people in the aftermath of World War I, namely, through the creation of an independent, sovereign Turkish state. The Sultanate was abolished by the newly founded parliament in 1922, paving the way for the formal proclamation of the republic that was to come on 29 October 1923.[61]
Transition to Ankara
editMustafa Kemal, in a speech he made on 19 March 1920 announced that "an Assembly will be gathered in Ankara that will possess extraordinary powers" and communicated how the members who would participate in the assembly would be elected and the need to realise elections, at the latest, within 15 days.[62] He also stated that the members of the dispersed Ottoman Chamber of Deputies could also participate in the assembly in Ankara, to increase the representative power of the parliament. These elections were held as planned, in the style of the elections of the preceding Chamber of Deputies, in order to select the first members of the new Turkish assembly. This Grand National Assembly, established on national sovereignty, held its inaugural session on 23 April 1920.[61] From this date until the end of the Turkish War of Independence in 1923, the provisional government of Turkey was known as the Government of the Grand National Assembly.
Republican era
edit1923–1945
editThe first trial of multi-party politics, during the republican era, was made in 1924 by the establishment of the Terakkiperver Cumhuriyet Fırkası (Progressive Republican Party) at the request of Mustafa Kemal, which was closed after several months. Following a 6-year one-party rule, after the foundation of the Serbest Fırka (Liberal Party) by Ali Fethi Okyar, again at the request of Mustafa Kemal, in 1930, some violent disorders took place, especially in the eastern parts of the country. The Liberal Party was dissolved on 17 November 1930 and no further attempt at a multiparty democracy was made until 1945.[63]
1945–1960
editThe multi-party period in Turkey was resumed by the founding of the National Development Party (Milli Kalkınma Partisi), by Nuri Demirağ, in 1945. The Democrat Party was established the following year, and won the general elections of 1950; one of its leaders, Celal Bayar, becoming President of the Republic and another, Adnan Menderes, Prime Minister.[64]
1960–1980
editAfter the a military coup on 27 May 1960, Prime Minister Adnan Menderes, President Celal Bayar, and all the ministers and members of the Assembly were arrested.[65] The Assembly was closed. The Committee of National Unity, CNU (Milli Birlik Komitesi), assumed all the powers of the Assembly by a provisional constitution and began to run the country. Executive power was used by ministers appointed by the CNU.[66]
The members of the CNU began to work on a new and comprehensive constitution. The Constituent Assembly (Kurucu Meclis), composed of members of the CNU and the members of the House of Representatives, was established to draft a new constitution on 6 January 1961. The House of Representatives consisted of those appointed by the CNU, representatives designated by two parties of that time (CHP and Republican Villagers National Party, RVNP), and representatives of various professional associations.[64]
The constitutional text drafted by the Constituent Assembly was presented to the voters in a referendum on 9 July 1961, and was accepted by 61.17% of the voters. The 1961 Constitution, the first prepared by a Constituent Assembly and the first to be presented to the people in a referendum, included innovations in many subjects.[64]
The 1961 Constitution stipulated a typical parliamentarian system. According to the Constitution, Parliament was bicameral. The legislative power was vested in the House of Representatives and the Senate. while the executive authority was vested in the President and the Council of Ministers. The Constitution envisaged a Constitutional Court.[64]
The 1961 Constitution regulated fundamental rights and freedom, including economic and social rights, over a wide spectrum and adopted the principles of a democratic social state and the rule of law. The 1961 Constitution underwent many comprehensive changes after the military memorandum of 12 March 1971, but continued to be in force until the military coup of 1980.[67]
1980–2018
editThe country underwent another military coup on 12 September 1980. The Constitution was suspended and political parties were dissolved.[68] Many politicians were forbidden from entering politics again. The military power ruling the country established a "Constituent Assembly", as had been done in 1961. The Constituent Assembly was composed of the National Security Council and the Advisory Assembly. Within two years, the new constitution was drafted and was presented to the referendum on 7 November 1982. Participation in the referendum was 91.27%. As a result, the 1982 Constitution was passed with 91.37% of the votes.[69]
The greatest change brought about by the 1982 Constitution was the unicameral parliamentary system.[68] The number of MPs were 550 members. The executive was empowered and new and more definite limitations were introduced on fundamental rights and freedoms. Also, a 10% electoral threshold was introduced.[2] Except for these aspects, the 1982 Constitution greatly resembled the 1961 Constitution.
The 1982 Constitution, from the time it was accepted until the present time, has undergone many changes, especially the "integration laws", which have been introduced within the framework of the European Union membership process, and which has led to a fundamental evolution.[67]
2018–present
editAfter the 2017 constitutional referendums, the first general election of the Assembly was under a presidential system, with an executive president who has the power to renew the elections for the Assembly and vice versa.[70] Following the referendum, the number of MPs increased from 550 to 600.[71] Furthermore, due to separation of powers, members of the cabinet can't introduce laws anymore. This task is left to the parliamentarians. In line with this change, the seats for the members of the cabinet have been removed from the parliament. These seats were originally located on the left side of the Parliament Speaker.[72]
In 2022, at the initiative of the ruling AK Party and its main political ally MHP, the national electoral threshold for a party to enter parliament was lowered from 10 to 7 percent.[73]
Changes since 2023
editHistorical composition
editSingle-party period
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List of foreign leaders addressing the Turkish Parliament
editThe General Assembly of the Turkish Grand National Assembly hosts foreign dignitaries from time to time.[74] However, the protocol here may vary depending on the situation. For the foreign guest to make a speech a decision of the General Assembly is required.[75]
Picture gallery
edit-
The current TBMM front facade
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The old TBMM
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Balcony of the old TBMM
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The General Assembly is the meeting place of the TBMM
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President Atatürk entering the TBMM
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Funeral of President Demirel
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Garden of the second TBMM
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A scale model of the current TBMM
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Discussion in the TBMM in the 1980s
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Hatı Çırpan at the rostrum
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The predecessor of the TBMM was the Ottoman Parliament
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The Ottoman Parliament in 1877
See also
editNotes
editReferences
editCitations
edit- ^ "2023 Milletvekili maaşı kaç TL, ne kadar? Milletvekilleri aylık ne kadar kazanıyor?". Cumhuriyet (in Turkish). 30 May 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2023.
- ^ a b c "Crossing the threshold – the Turkish election". electoral-reform.org.uk. Archived from the original on 12 December 2018. Retrieved 5 April 2019.
- ^ "Turkey: Parliament Passes Law Amending Election Laws and Lowering Electoral Threshold". Library of Congress. Retrieved 15 December 2023.
- ^ hlsjrnldev. "ECHR Upholds Turkey's 10% Threshold in Elections". Archived from the original on 17 February 2020. Retrieved 17 February 2020.
- ^ Turkish Directorate General of Press and Information (24 August 2004). "Political Structure of Turkey". Turkish Prime Minister's Office. Archived from the original on 5 October 2006. Retrieved 14 December 2006.
- ^ e.g. Istanbul in 2011 has a successful candidate at 3.2% Archived 15 June 2011 at the Wayback Machine
- ^ "Son Dakika: TBMM'nin yeni başkanı Numan Kurtulmuş oldu". Haberler. 8 June 2023. Archived from the original on 7 June 2023. Retrieved 8 June 2023.
- ^ "Turkish parliament offers simultaneous translation into four languages, excludes Kurdish". Gazete Duvar (in Turkish). 10 May 2021. Archived from the original on 16 December 2022. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
- ^ "HDP MP not allowed to speak Kurdish in parliament". Gazete Duvar (in Turkish). 12 July 2022. Archived from the original on 16 December 2022. Retrieved 16 December 2022.
- ^ "IPU PARLINE database: TURKEY (Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi (T.B.M.M)), Full text". archive.ipu.org. Archived from the original on 3 October 2019. Retrieved 18 February 2020.
- ^ "Adalet Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Anayasa Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Avrupa Birliği Uyum Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Bayındırlık, İmar, Ulaştırma ve Turizm Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Çevre Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Dışişleri Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Dijital Mecralar Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Dilekçe Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Güvenlik ve İstihbarat Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "İçişleri Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "İnsan Haklarını İnceleme Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "İslamofobi ve Irkçılık İnceleme Alt Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Hükümlü ve Tutuklu Haklarını İnceleme Alt Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Göç ve Uyum Alt Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Çocuk Hakları Alt Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Kadın Erkek Fırsat Eşitliği Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Kadın Erkek Fırsat Eşitliği Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Milli Eğitim, Kültür, Gençlik ve Spor Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Milli Savunma Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Plan ve Bütçe Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Sağlık, Aile, Çalışma ve Sosyal İşler Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Sanayi, Ticaret, Enerji, Tabii Kaynaklar, Bilgi ve Teknoloji Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Tarım, Orman ve Köyişleri Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ Köroğlu, Veli (December 2006). "Meclis Araştırması". Sosyal Bilimler Dergisi. Vol. 3, no. 2. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
- ^ a b c d e "Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi İçtüzüğü" (PDF). tbmm.gov.tr. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 August 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
- ^ "Avrupa Güvenlik ve İşbirliği Teşkilatı Parlamenter Asamblesi". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Kuzey Atlantik Antlaşması Örgütü Parlamenter Asamblesi". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Avrupa Konseyi Parlamenter Meclisi". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Türkiye - Avrupa Birliği Karma Parlamento Komisyonu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "İslam İş Birliği Teşkilatı Parlamento Birliği". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Asya Parlamenter Asamblesi". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Akdeniz İçin Birlik Parlamenter Asamblesi". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Parlamentolar Arası Birlik". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Karadeniz Ekonomik İşbirliği Parlamenter Asamblesi". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Akdeniz Parlamenter Asamblesi". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Türk Devletleri Parlamenter Asamblesi". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Ekonomik İşbirliği Teşkilatı Parlamenter Asamblesi". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Güney Doğu Avrupa İş Birliği Süreci Parlamenter Asamblesi". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "And Parlamentosu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Latin Amerikan ve Karayipler Parlamentosu". GNAT. Retrieved 23 October 2023.
- ^ "Türkiye Parlamentosunda Açıklık ve Şeffaflık, Yasama Süreçlerine Sivil Katılım" (PDF). tusev.org.tr. Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 September 2020. Retrieved 21 April 2020.
- ^ a b c "The Grand National Assembly of Turkey". Archived from the original on 4 August 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2016.
- ^ Yale, Pat; Virginia Maxwell; Miriam Raphael; Jean-Bernard Carillet (2005). Turkey. Lonely Planet. ISBN 1-74059-683-8. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 11 November 2020.
- ^ Central Bank of the Republic of Turkey Archived 15 June 2009 at the Wayback Machine. Banknote Museum: 7. Emission Group – Fifty Thousand Turkish Lira – I. Series Archived 22 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine & II. Series Archived 22 November 2008 at the Wayback Machine. Retrieved on 20 April 2009.
- ^ "Meclis yaz dönemini tadilatla geçirecek" (in Turkish). TRT News. 23 August 2016. Archived from the original on 18 August 2018. Retrieved 23 January 2017.
- ^ "Türk Demokrasi Tarihinde I. Meşrutiyet Dönemi" (PDF) (in Turkish). Gazi University. 2005. Archived (PDF) from the original on 27 November 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ "Yüzüncü Yılında II. Meşrutiyet'in İlanı Üzerine Bir İnceleme" (in Turkish). Gazi University. 2008. Archived from the original on 14 January 2023. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ "Mütareke Dönemi'nde Ayan Meclisi'nin Çalışmaları" (PDF). The Journal of International Social Research (in Turkish). 2012. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 September 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ "İlk Osmanlı Seçimleri ve Parlamentosu". Sosyoloji Dergisi (in Turkish). 2013. Archived from the original on 1 October 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ Kinross, Patrick (1977). The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. Morrow. ISBN 0-688-03093-9.
- ^ a b "The Fundamental Law and abolition of the sultanate". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 6 August 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ "Olağanüstü yetkiler taşıyan bir meclisin Ankara'da toplanması kararı". atam.gov.tr (in Turkish). Archived from the original on 19 March 2021. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ "Opposition". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 14 September 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ a b c d "Turkey under the Democrats, 1950–60". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 September 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ "The military coup of 1960". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 12 September 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ "The National Unity Committee". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 12 September 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ a b "History". The Grand National Assembly of Turkey. Archived from the original on 24 February 2020. Retrieved 1 November 2017.
- ^ a b "The 1980s". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ "1982 referandumu: Mavi, Beyaz'a karşı" (in Turkish). BBC. 4 April 2017. Archived from the original on 6 November 2022. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ "AK Party under pressure: failed coup attempt, crackdown on dissidents, and economic crisis". Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 14 September 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ "Anayasa değişikliği kabul edildi! Yeni anayasa ne getiriyor?". Milliyet (in Turkish). 17 April 2017. Archived from the original on 9 January 2020. Retrieved 9 April 2020.
- ^ "Meclis yeni sisteme hazır: Bakanlar Kurulu sıraları kaldırıldı". CNN Türk (in Turkish). 20 September 2018. Archived from the original on 28 November 2018. Retrieved 12 April 2022.
- ^ "Turkey reduces its election threshold from 10 to 7 percent - Turkish Minute". April 2022. Archived from the original on 8 April 2022. Retrieved 14 April 2022.
- ^ "Yabancı Konukların Genel Kurulda konuşmaları". www5.tbmm.gov.tr. Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisi. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
- ^ Bakırcı, Fahri (2015). Türkiye Büyük Millet Meclisindeki Yerleşik Uygulamalar. Ankara: TBMM Basımevi. p. 449. ISBN 978-975-8805-53-2. Retrieved 16 September 2023.
Sources
edit- Kinross, Patrick (1977). The Ottoman Centuries: The Rise and Fall of the Turkish Empire. Morrow. ISBN 0-688-03093-9.
- Shaw, Stanford Jay; Shaw, Ezel Kural (1977). History of the Ottoman Empire and Modern Turkey. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-29163-1.