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Draft:Opium Production and Usage in Colonial India

  • Comment: Needs to be structured as an encyclopedia article. Stuartyeates (talk) 08:36, 26 November 2023 (UTC)

Opium, or the opium poppy, was created to be a stimulant, sedative, and euphoric drug prevalent in Northern Indian society.[1] It was embedded in many social and religious customs, from a form of binding contracts to being part of religious sects, and was often specific to caste groups.[2] However, it was a popular Indian medical treatment, largely, for all caste groups.[1] Opium merchants in Patna supported and controlled most of the production of opium through interest-bearing cash advances.[3] There were mixed opinions about opium usage in India, but the popular view was that because opium was intertwined with a cultural system of norms and use was relatively moderate (tied to medical purposes, ritual, and social settings), there was no issue with the drug and the increasing level of usage for fear of addiction.[1] Medically, opium was utilized to alleviate pain, intestinal issues, and abdominal discomfort and even given to children to keep them quiet.[3] India somewhat moderated usage of the drug (in comparison to China) and, therefore, it was not seen as an issue.[1] However, the production and use of opium changed with the British, specifically, the British East India Company (the British Raj) in 1708.[4] The goal of the British was to establish giant export crops–wheat, sugar, and opium–and to do so, they created canal systems and railroads to increase the productivity and speed of growing opium.[5] The system became a way for the British to continue controlling the Indian people; they were unimpeded in their opium production because they were rising in power and control.[4] With the British conquest of Bengal in 1757 came even greater monopolization over the crop as they took management of Bengal opium.[4] Noteably, they struggled to take power over Malwa opium because it was controlled by various princely states.[6] Yet, British merchant companies created a triangle of trade: opium was grown in India, shipped to China, where it was traded for silver, tea, and silk, and then sent to London markets for purchase, almost as a form of currency.[4] Warren Hastings imposed, in 1772, a state monopoly: until 1797, the British created contracts to control the production and purchase of opium.[1] Independent farmers were subject to criminal penalties and British officers used their power to exploit contractors.[1] Opium production shifted from restricted output to heavy growth–it was a critical aspect of British mercantile systems.[1] Opium production, when the British took over, hurt the Indian people–it was transformed from a medical and recreational tool to an opportunity for the British to exploit Indian farmers. Local landowners forced their tenants to grow opium, and they were penalized if they refused to grow the crop; Indian farmers paid more for production than what they made from selling the drug, and the Opium Agency exploited and heavily monitored opium farmers.[2] Opium production was observed with “police-like authority:” Regulation VI of 1799, created by the Governor General, inhibited all private cultivation of poppy: peasants had to grow and produce a set amount of opium and deliver it, untarnished, to the agent to avoid punishment.[3] Restrictions on opium production were also harsh on the people. A letter from the Government of India in 1890 explained their worry about the “increased usage of opium in certain localities,” seeing it as a “serious danger.”[6] Although they acknowledged that the usage of opium in all of India was not a current threat, they were worried about the future of the drug and how it would impact society.[6] They suggested monitoring the usage in India and the possible “closing of shops” should be “specially considered.”[6] In 1813, the British Government in India created the Bengal Resolution, which tried to restrict opium eating for “maximum revenue from minimum consumption.”[4] However, in 1895, a Royal Commission decided that opium consumption was based on tradition and had not resulted in any extensive degradation–meaning it was not an issue.[1] The usage of opium transitioned from a cultural, social, and medical drug to a form of financial gain for the British that deepened their control over the Indian people.

References edit

  1. ^ a b c d e f g h Brown, Richard Harvey (2002). "The Opium Trade and Opium Policies in India, China, Britain, and the United States: Historical Comparisons and Theoretical Interpretations". Asian Journal of Social Science. 30 (3): 623–656. doi:10.1163/156853102320945420. JSTOR 23654609 – via JSTOR.
  2. ^ a b Bauer, Rolf (April 5, 2019). "Introduction". The Peasant Production of Opium in Nineteenth-Century India. Brill. pp. 1–10. doi:10.1163/9789004385184_002. ISBN 978-90-04-38518-4 – via brill.com.
  3. ^ a b c "Opium In India". The British Medical Journal. 2 (4990): 469–470. 1956. JSTOR 20359085 – via JSTOR.
  4. ^ a b c d e Richards, J. F. (1981). "The Indian Empire and Peasant Production of Opium in the Nineteenth Century". Modern Asian Studies. 15 (1): 59–82. doi:10.1017/S0026749X00006788. JSTOR 312105 – via JSTOR.
  5. ^ Farooqui, Amar (2016). "The Global Career of Indian Opium and Local Destinies". Almanack (14): 52–73. doi:10.1590/2236-463320161404.
  6. ^ a b c d "Consumption of opium in India". HathiTrust. hdl:2027/umn.31951p00485533f.
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