Draft:Massif du Mercantour-Argentera

Massif du Mercantour-Argentera
Panorama of the massif from Mougins
Highest point
Elevation	3,297 m (10,817 ft)
Parent peak	Monte Argentera
Coordinates	44°12′47″N 7°05′39″E
Dimensions
Length	80 km (50 mi)
Geography
The massif is at the border of France and Italy, towards south
Countries	France and Italy
Departments and provinces	Alpes-Maritimes, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence, Cuneo
Regions	Provence-Alpes-Côte d’Azur and Piedmont
Parent range	Maritime Alps
Geology
Age of rock	Mesozoic

The Mercantour-Argentera massif (French: Massif du Mercantour-Argentera, Italian: Massiccio del Mercantour-Argentera) is a massif in the Maritime Alps located astride the French departments of Alpes-Maritimes and Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and the Italian region of Piedmont. The name of the massif comes respectively from the summit of Mercantour, a secondary central summit, and from Mount Argentera, the highest point of the massif (3,297 m (10,817 ft)), entirely in Italy.

The massif is partially covered by two natural parks, the Mercantour national park on the French side and the Maritime Alps natural park on the Italian side. These parks are important because they protect many rare animal and plant species, like Speleomantes strinatii and Saxifraga florulenta, which is only found in this massif and used to be a symbol of the Mercantour Park. The massif is also full of rivers and lakes, most of which were formed during the last Ice Age and are found in the basins of the massif’s crystalline rocks.

This area has been home to humans since the Early Bronze Age, with signs of this early occupation particularly visible at Vallée des Merveilles. Human presence in the area grew during Antiquity and the Middle Ages, notably with the establishment of the salt route. In the 20th and 21st centuries, the massif has become a popular destination for tourism and recreation. The area offers a range of outdoor activities and sports, including ski touring, alpine skiing, cross-country skiing, hiking, mountaineering, and canyoning. Today, the economy of the massif is primarily focused on the tourism sector, which has largely overtaken agricultural and industrial activities.

The massif is associated with an important cultural heritage, through a gastronomic and linguistic typicity. It also inspires artists, as evident in its representations and appearances in painting, cinema, music and literature.

Toponymy

In France, outside of academic circles, the massif is commonly referred to as the Mercantour massif. This name generally refers to the French part of the massif, which tends to be confused with the territory of the eponymous national park, although the latter is smaller in size.

The name massif du Mercantour is commonly used in the 21st century. However, its origin is attributed to a mistake made by French military topographers in the 19th century. These topographers, while conducting triangulation measurements from Côte d’Azur, identified a peak that appeared to be the highest. Upon visiting the location, they were informed by local shepherds that the mountain was known as the summit of Mercantour. Contrary to their initial perception, this peak does not exceed an altitude of 3,000 meters. The reason for their misjudgment was that from the coast, Mount Argentera, which is actually taller, was obscured by the Mercantour peak in their line of sight.

In France, the Italian part of this territory is called the Argentera massif. However, in Italy, the entire massif (i.e. both its Italian and French parts) is named Alpi Marittime.

Geography

Location

The massif extends over the border part of the mountain range between the Rocher des Trois-Évêques (near the Col de la Bonette) and the Col de Tende.

The Mercantour massif seen from the Baie des Anges in winter

Geomorphology

The massif is made up of a main range, oriented northwest/southeast, which serves as a natural Franco-Italian border. The crest line of this range represents a little more than 70 km. Four main orographic nodes exceeding 3,000 m altitude can be distinguished, from east to west:

• the Gélas-Malédie-Clapier group (culminating at 3,143 m), Gélas being the highest peak of the massif on the French side;
• the Argentera group (culminating at 3,297 m), whose southern summit is the highest peak of the massif;
• the Malinvern-Matto group (3,097 m);
• the Corborant-Ténibre group (3,031 m).

Six main valleys cross the massif or delimit its natural borders:

• in France, these are the valleys of Var, Tinée, Vésubie, and Roya (with the exception of the southern end of Roya, which is in Italy);
• in Italy, these are the valleys of Gesso, Stura di Demonte, and Vermenagna.

These valleys are generally very steep, forming impassable gorges in their lower part, but widening at intermediate altitudes (600 to 1,000 m), where the majority of human occupations are found.

The relief of the massif covers the entire northern half of the department of Alpes-Maritimes, in France, and the eastern end of the province of Cuneo, in Italy.

Access

The western and central areas of the massif are accessible from various routes. From the south, one can reach it from Nice via the Boulevard du Mercantour (formerly Route de Grenoble). This route serves the D6202, M2205, and M2565 roads, leading to the Var, Tinée, and Vésubie valleys respectively.

The eastern part of the massif can also be accessed from Nice via the D2204 road, and from Ventimiglia via the SS20 road. Both these roads converge at the Roya valley.

To the north of the massif, the Departmental Road 900 in France, which becomes the S21 and then the SS21 in Italy, connects the towns of Barcelonnette and Borgo San Dalmazzo. This route skirts the relief and serves all the valleys located to the north of the massif.

The Mercantour Massif is also accessible by rail. The train des Pignes, which connects Nice to Digne-les-Bains, runs along the southwest end of the massif. On the eastern side, the railway lines from Nice to Breil-sur-Roya and from Cuneo to Ventimiglia, often referred to as the Tende lines or the “Train of Wonders”, provide access to the town of Tende.

Main summits

• Monte Argentera, 3,297 m
• Cime Genova, 3,191 m
• Cime du Gélas, 3,143 m
• Cime de Nasta, 3,108 m
• Monte Matto, 3,097 m
• Cime Chafrion, 3,073 m
• Cime de Baus, 3,067 m
• Cime de la Malédie, 3,059 m
• Cime de Brocan, 3,054 m
• Cime Paganini, 3,051 m
• Corno Stella (Piedmont), 3,050 m
• Cime Il Bastione, 3,047 m
• Monte Clapier, 3,045 m
• Cime Purtscheller, 3,040 m
• Tête de Siguret, 3,032 m
• Mont Ténibre, 3,031 m
• Cime de la Forchetta, 3,015 m
• Corborant, 3,007 m
• Cime Guilié, 2,999 m
• Tête de la Ruine, 2,984 m
• Claï supérieur, 2,982 m
• Enciastraia, 2,954 m
• Cime de Peirabroc, 2,947 m
• Cime Cabret, 2,938 m
• Mont Malinvern, 2,938 m
• Caïre de l'Agnel, 2,937 m
• Grand Capelet, 2,935 m
• Cime de l'Agnel, 2,927 m
• Cime Chamineye, 2,921 m
• Caïres de Cougourde, 2,921 m
• Cime Saint-Robert, 2,917 m
• Pointe Côte de l'Âne, 2,916 m
• Tête du Claus, 2,897 m
• Cime des Gaisses, 2,896 m
• Pointe Giegn, 2,888 m
• Fort Carra, 2,880 m
• Mont Bégo, 2,872 m
• Cime de la Bonette, 2,860 m
• Tête des Tablasses, 2,855 m
• Caïre du Préfouns, 2,835 m
• Cime du Lombard, 2,832 m
• Mont Ponset, 2,828 m
• Tête des Bresses, 2,823 m
• Cime de Baissette, 2,822 m
• Cime de Pal, 2,818 m
• Mont Mounier, 2,817 m
• Mont Colomb, 2,816 m
• Cime de la Lombarde, 2,800 m
• Cime de Tavels, 2,795 m
• Tête du Basto, 2,794 m
• Mont Neiglier, 2,786 m
• Cime du Mercantour, 2,772 m
• Mont Pélago, 2,768 m
• Tête de Trecolpas, 2,760 m
• Roche Grande, 2,752 m
• Caïres Nègres du Pélago, 2,745 m
• Tête du Lac-Autier, 2,740 m
• Cime de Frémamorte, 2,730 m
• Cime de Rogué, 2,705 m
• Cime de l'Agnellière, 2,700 m
• Cime du Diable, 2,685 m

Panorama of the main range of the Argentera massif in Italian territory

Panorama of the Mercantour massif

Panorama of the Mercantour-Argentera massif, taken from the summit of Caïre Archas

Hydrography

The French part of the massif corresponds largely to the watersheds of the tributaries on the left bank of the Var (notably the Tinée and the Vésubie) and the right bank of the Roya, (notably the Bévéra). On the Italian part, the massif corresponds to the right bank watershed of the Stura di Demonte, up to Cuneo (including in particular its tributaries Gesso and Vermenagna).

Lakes

The massif is home to just over 200 lakes, making it one of the territories with the highest lake densities in the French Alpine massifs. The origin of these lakes is primarily glacial. They are situated in basins that were formed by the erosion of glaciers during the Würm glaciation.

Major lakes in the French side (with altitudes):

• Lac Long (2,560 m)
• Lac Long supérieur (2,110 m)
• Lac Long inférieur (2,095 m)
• Lac Fourca (2,165 m)
• Lakes of Prals (2,275 m)
• Lac Nègre (2,354 m)
• Lac Autier (2,275 m)
• Lacs Bessons (2,550 m)

• Lac du Basto (2,341 m)
• Lac Noir (2,278 m)
• Lac Vert (2,221 m)
• Lac de la Fous (2,180 m)
• Lac de la Muta (2,274 m)
• Lac de l'Agnel (2,645 m)
• Lac du Mercantour (2,454 m)
• Lakes of Vens (2,275 to 2,327 m)

• Lac du Boréon (1,473 m)
• Lac de Tavels (2,235 m)
• Lacs de Terre-Rouge (2,417 to 2,452 m)
• Lac de Rabuons (2,500 m)
• Lac Blanc (2,665 m)
• Lac Clapière (2,625 m)
• Lacs des Adus (2,130 m)
• Lac de Trecolpas (2,150 m)

Major lakes in the Italian side (with altitudes):

• Lac Vei del Bouc (2,054 m)
• Lac Brocan (2,000 m)
• Lac du Claus (2,344 m)
• Lac de la Rovine (1,535 m)

• Lac Sottano della Sella (1,882 m)
• Grand lac Valscura (2,274 m)
• Lac Chiotas (1,978 m)
• Lac Soprano della Sella (2,329 m)

• Lac Malinvern (2,123 m)
• Lac de Portette (2,361 m)
• Lakes of Italian Frémamorte (2,359 to 2,380 m)
• Lakes of Lausfer (2,357 to 2,370 m)

Lac Long in the Gordolasque valley

Lac Négre

Lacs Bessons

Watercourses

The massif benefits from more abundant rainfall than the surrounding low valleys and plains and plays the role of a water reserve for the latter. Notable watercourses within the massif are as follows:

In France

• Vens
• Tinée
• Gialorgues
• Boréon
• Rabuons
• Gordolasque
• Tuébi
• Var
• Sestrières
• Vésubie
• Cians
• Roya
• Bévéra
• Barlatte
• Roudoule
• Ardon

In Italy

• Gesso di Entracque
• Gesso della Valletta
• Valle Grande
• Cros
• Rio Roaschia
• Colomart
• Vallasco
• Sant'anna
• Vermenagna
• Gesso
• Stura di Demonte
• Sottana
• Bousset
• Bucera
• Valletta
• Rio Freddo

Glaciers

The massif was characterized by the presence of several glaciers by the end of the 20th century. During the early 1930s, these glaciers, located on the Italian slopes, covered an area of approximately 200 hectares. However, by the start of the 21st century, these glaciers had either vanished or were reduced to inert ice beneath the moraine. At the beginning of the 20th century, the main glaciers of the massif were the following:

• Gélas Glaciers (43 ha)
• Clapier Glacier (40 ha)
• Maledie Glacier (31 ha)
• Peirabroc Glacier (15 ha)
• Murajon Glacier (14 ha)
• Lourousa Glacier (12 ha)
• Schiantala Glacier (11 ha)
• Ubac Glacier (9 ha)
• Corborant Glacier (7 ha)
• Cessole Glacier (5 ha)

Geology

Orogeny

In geological terms, the massif has an elliptical shape with a northwest-southeast axis. It is part of the external crystalline massifs of the Alps chain, being the southernmost of them. This massif is a fragment of the continental crust of the Hercynian chain. It has undergone deformation and Alpine metamorphism, with the events of the Alpine orogeny superimposed on Paleozoic events. This has resulted in a massif composed of very old crystalline rocks, dating back at least 350 million years.

Four main complexes can be distinguished within the massif:

• the Tinée complex (made up of migmatites and gneiss);
• the Gesso-Stura-Vésubie complex (composed of migmatite, anatexites and amphibolites);
• the Permian granites, in the center of massif;
• the mylonite of Valletta-Mollières, crossing the massif from one side to the other, along the northwest – southeast axis, composed mainly of mica schists.

To the east of the massif, more recent sedimentary rocks such as limestone, schist, and the purplish sandstone of the Vallée des Merveilles can be found. Similarly, to the north and west of the massif, along the edges of the Ubaye, Tinée, and Var valleys, alluvium is still present.

Glaciations

The study of Alpine glaciations has shed light on the impact of glacial periods on the massif. While knowledge about very ancient glaciations remains fragmentary as of the early 21st century, the effects of the Riss and Würm glaciations have been better understood since the early 20th century. The Würm glaciation, in particular, significantly reshaped the landscapes and altered the moraine traces of the Riss glaciation. Field data analysis, especially from the Italian Stura di Demonte valley, has helped establish the glacial maximum during the Riss period. The maximum advance of the glacial tongue was located between the communes of Saint-Martin-Vésubie and Lantosque in Vésubie on the French side. During the Würmian period, the Gordolasque glacier, which was particularly large, reached a thickness of 300 meters.

The traces left by these glaciers are visible within the massif in the form of erratic blocks as well as rocks scraped or polished by the action of ice are widespread there, particularly in the Merveilles and Fontanalbe valleys.

Seismicity

The French part of the massif is mainly located in a zone of average seismicity. The Vésubie valley in particular was affected by major earthquakes during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Italian part of the massif is located in a zone of low to medium seismicity.

Climate

The climate of the massif is characterized by hot and dry summers and mild winters, typical of a mountainous region. The climatic conditions within the massif are diverse due to its geographical location, being subject to both Alpine influences in the north and Mediterranean influences in the south. Consequently, the massif experiences milder temperatures, on average for a given altitude, compared to massifs located further north.

The existence of three topoclimates, namely adret, ubac, and fond de vallée, is confirmed by records from meteorological stations installed in the upper Vésubie. Rainfall patterns across the massif vary, decreasing from east to west. The Roya valley receives the highest rainfall, while the Var valley receives the least. Overall, the massif experiences abundant precipitation, exceeding 1,000 mm per year, which is often intense, especially in autumn.

The massif is sensitive to the Foehn effect and is influenced by the depression of the Gulf of Genoa, which results in cold winds, such as the Lombarde wind, blowing from the east. In winter, the snow cover follows the same geographical distribution as precipitation and can often reach several meters. The massif is also experiencing the effects of global warming, with an increase in temperature of 0.3 °C per decade over the period from 1959 to 2009.

Climate data for Massif du Mercantour-Argentera
Month	Jan	Feb	Mar	Apr	May	Jun	Jul	Aug	Sep	Oct	Nov	Dec	Year
Source: Infoclimat.fr

Fauna and flora

The Mercantour-Argentera massif benefits from exceptional biological wealth, with a very high rate of endemism.

Flora

The massif is home to more than 2,000 plant species, which represents more than half of the species present in the Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur region, and more than 40% of the French native flora.

The supra-Mediterranean level is dominated by forests of common ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and chestnut (Castanea sativa). On the right side, the slopes are largely populated by formations of juniper (Juniperus thurifera).

On the subalpine level, larch (Larix decidua) and stone pine (Pinus cembra) dominate, mixed with Rhododendron heaths ( Rhododendron ferrugineum ). Well -developed megaphorbias of Adenostylion alliariae  border the numerous watercourses of the subalpine level. These wetlands include endemic species, such as the elegant cherophyll (Chaerophyllum elegans), the Balbis ragwort (Tephroseris balbisiana), the mountain cirsus (Cirsium alsophilum) and the Austrian Doronicum (Doronicum austriacum). Acidic lakes and ponds with black sedge (Carex nigra) allow observation of Caricion fuscae which shelter rare species such as the round-leaved sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), the short sedge (Carex canescens) and various species of sphagnum moss (Sphagnum auriculatum, Sphagnum teres, Sphagnum russowii, Sphagnum warnstorfii).

The siliceous rock walls, located on the subalpine to alpine levels, are dominated by endemic species: the heart-leaved silene (Silene cordifolia) and the many-flowered Saxifrage (Saxifraga florulenta). The limestone walls are also populated by endemic species: the bellflower (Silene campanulata) and the heart-leaved rapunzel (Phyteuma cordatum).

At the alpine stage, the lakes, numerous in the massif, are populated with narrow-leaved ribbon tree (Sparganium angustifolium). Silicicolous snow valleys, also widespread in the Alpine stage, allow the development of Salicetum herbaceae.

Wildlife

The massif is populated by many animal species, of which 94 are of natural heritage and 47 are 'determinant' species.

The mammals of the massif are often rare or endemic, such as: the Alpine ibex (determinant), the mountain hare, the gray wolf (determinant), and alpine pine vole. Different species of bat are also present like the greater horseshoe bat (determinant), the greater noctule bat, the lesser horseshoe bat, the lesser noctule bat, the northern bat (determinant), Savi's pipistrelle and the common barbastelle (determinant).

Many species of birds are present, of which 3 are determinant: the peregrine falcon, the boreal owl, and the Eurasian pygmy owl. Several other remarkable species populate the massif, such as: golden eagle, rock ptarmigan, black grouse, rock partridge, Eurasian eagle-owl, white-throated dipper, wallcreeper, common rock thrush, red-billed chough, hawfinch, citril finch, white-winged snowfinch and Ortolan bunting.

The massif is home to a variety of amphibians and reptiles. Among the amphibians, the Speleomantes strinatii is noteworthy. This species is very localized in the region and can be found at altitudes ranging from 0 to 2,400 meters. In terms of reptiles, the sand lizard is present up to an altitude of 2,000 meters. The local populations of this species are isolated and fragmented

Insects are also represented by rare or endemic species, such as the alpine emerald dragonfly (determinant), the French grasshopper (determinant), the Ligurian alpine-bush cricket (determinant), ephippiger, the Mercantour alpine-bush cricket, and Acalypta visolensis (determinant). 6 species of beetles are also determinant (Amara lantoscana, Licinus oblongus, Cychrus angulicollis, Bembidion decorum decorum, Trechus delarouzeei and Tragosoma depsarium).

Demography

Urbanization

The main urbanized areas of the massif, on its French part, are made up of rural communes , of the "rural town" type, or belonging to "rural zones with dispersed or very dispersed housing", within the meaning of the municipal density grid of the ' INSEE  . Within the massif, the following towns and villages are present:

• to the west: Entraunes , Saint-Martin-d'Entraunes , Châteauneuf-d'entraunes , Péone , Beuil , Guillaumes , Daluis , Pierlas , Rigaud , Lieuche , Thiéry , Touët-sur-Var , Puget-Théniers  ;
• in the center: Saint-Dalmas-le-Selvage , Saint-Étienne-De-Tinée , Isola , Saint-Sauveur-sur-Tinée , Roubion , Roure , Rimplas , Ilonse , Valdeblore , Clans , Bairols , Tournefort , Marie , La Tour , Venanson , Lantosque , Roquebilière , Belvédère , La Bollène-Vésubie , Saint-Martin-Vésubie  ;
• to the east: Aisone , Roaschia , Valdieri , Entracque , Vinadio , Vernante , Breil-sur-Roya , Fontan , Saorge , Tende , Limone .

The central area of ​​the massif is covered by the intercommunal structure constituted by the Nice Côte d'Azur metropolis . Urbanization there has been regulated since October 25, 2019  by the local metropolitan urban planning plan (PLUM), which integrates the charter of the Mercantour national park  ,  . The population density on the French part of the massif is low: around 10 inhabitants per km²  . The development of this territory is in fact constrained by a very rugged terrain, and it only includes rare artificial or agricultural areas. Transport infrastructure is also poorly developed  .

The towns and villages of the massif have been subject to a rural exodus since the beginning of the 20th ^century  , which still continues at the beginning of the 21st ^century  , in particular on the Italian part of the massif  ,  . However, on the French side, certain villages have seen their population increase again since the beginning of the 21st ^century  (for example in Clans  , Saint-Martin-Vésubie, Valdeblore, Belvédère, Lantosque  , Saint-Étienne-de-Tinée or Entraunes)  .

On the French part of the massif, the membership area of ​​the Mercantour national park covers, in2022, 23 municipalities, representing 20,600 inhabitants  ,  . And on the Italian part of the massif, the 5 municipalities of the Maritime Alps natural park (Aisone, Entracque, Roaschia, Valdieri and Vernante) represent in2011just over 3,000 inhabitants  .

The highest hamlets on the French side are Mollières , in the upper Boréon (1,572  m ), and Bousieyas (1,960  m , attached to the commune of Saint-Dalmas-le-Selvage). At the beginning of the ^21st century  , these hamlets are only occupied seasonally  .

Architecture

Two types of housing can be distinguished within the massif: concentrated and urban buildings on the one hand (cities and villages), which corresponds to permanent housing, and dispersed and rural buildings on the other hand, which corresponds to a temporary housing ( barns , cabins, etc.)  .

The traditional architecture of the massif has certain characteristic features of mountain buildings: adaptation of constructions to the slope, location on the right side , use of materials available locally on the construction site. But beyond the buildings intended for housing, the massif has characteristic architectural elements such as fountains and wash houses , cultivation terraces , oil mills (up to 700  m above sea level) and certain colorful decorations present in facade  .

A clear Italian influence is visible in the Roya valley, with houses in red or ocher colors, small squares with arcades , numerous loggias , onion bell towers with colored tiles... This Italian influence diminishes in the valley of Vésubie. But we see the appearance there, just as in Tinée, of numerous small barns, scattered from the valley floors to the mountain pastures , at around 2,000  m altitude  . Inside the enclosure of the villages of the massif, space is often reduced: the streets are narrow, and the houses are high, with sometimes differences in building height, from one side of the streets to the other. , due to the slope  .

Regarding roofs, channel tiles dominate in the lower valleys, but this is replaced by schist slate or larch shingles in the high valleys. Rye thatch is also used , especially for barns. Lime mortar is used for masonry , and stone, in generally unsquared blocks, is abundant, even dominant on the Italian part of the massif  ,  .

The attic-drying room, a characteristic architectural element of the massif, is placed above the house. It was used for drying and preserving foodstuffs, in villages living in virtual self-sufficiency. Its use is therefore all the more present as one moves away from the coast  . Generally speaking, storage and drying spaces represent a significant visible part of the buildings in the massif  .

Barns generally consist of a dry stone or masonry base, and an upper part consisting of one or two floors. This upper part, most of the time in larch, or sometimes in Scots pine  , is generally formed of stacked logs of blockbau type  ,  . The whole is topped by a hayloft . The living floor is always the intermediate floor  .

Fountains and wash houses are very present in the villages of the massif. They were among the important places of frequentation, the development of running water in rural areas having only accelerated in the middle of  the 20th ^century  .

The cultivation terraces, essential due to the often steep slopes, were created at the cost of a very significant effort by local populations.  They have two ^objectives : the prevention of erosion by water of arable land, and the extension of the arable surface area, in particular due to the demographic surge of the 16th  and 17th ^centuries  .

On a decorative level, the buildings of the valleys are all the more colorful the closer we get to Italy. The facades are painted with warm colors, and may include patterns, friezes or trompe l'oeil  ,  .

Since the years1970, we see the development of an awareness of the value of the built heritage of the massif, with for example the publication of manuals of recommendations relating to architecture and the restoration of buildings  ,  . Indeed, the high altitude barns of the massif, made mainly of wood, are tending to disappear.

Linguistics

The massif is geographically and historically placed on a pivotal linguistic zone, between the Occitan zone to the west, and the Ligurian and Piedmontese zones to the east  ,  . This positioning makes it a rich and complex linguistic pool  .

The languages ​​spoken historically in the massif therefore vary according to the valleys and villages. The linguistic trend that is emerging is an influence of Occitan to the west of the massif, and an influence of Ligurian and Piedmontese to the east of the massif. However, the languages ​​of the massif form a linguistic group in their own right, with their own characteristics, which distinguish them from their Provençal and transalpine neighbors  ,  . This linguistic group includes a gradient of dialects, derived from each other and influencing each other. This diversity of dialects is dominated by Vivaro-Alpine  or Gavot , but also includes local dialects , such as Tendasque or Brigasque  . Dictionaries published in the 21st ^century  exist, from and to French , for several of these local dialects  ,  .

The Gesso , Stura and Vermenagna valleys are also part of a larger group, called Occitan valleys , whose populations have been legally recognized in Italy as a “historical Occitan linguistic minority” since1999 .

The number of speakers of the Occitan and Alpine Ligurian languages ​​is, however, decreasing  and these are listed  in the Atlas of Endangered Languages ​​in the World , published by UNESCO . Indeed, the national languages ​​of French and Italian tend to supplant the local dialects on either side of the massif.

History

Prehistory

The occupation of the massif by man began in the Neolithic , and the colonization of the Alpine valleys dates back to the ^5th millennium  BC  . AD Then come the organization of transhumance and the exploitation of pastures, activities attested from the Copper Age  . The rock engravings of the Vallée des Merveilles , testimony par excellence of the passage of man in the massif, are located between 2,000 and 2,600  m above sea level. They are dated to the Copper Age and the Bronze Age . These engravings bear witness to religious and agricultural concerns, or attempts to measure the passage of time  . During the Bronze Age, metallurgical activity developed and semi-nomadism continued   : shepherds' shelters were identified in this area as seasonal places of passage  ,  . However, the development of human activities at altitude is experiencing a sharp slowdown between1550And1050 BC AD, due to a cooling of the climate in the Alpine arc  ,  . On the other hand, traces of relationships between protohistoric communities are visible, including at long distances, through certain imported weapons ( Carpathian spear found in Cuneo for example)  . Archaeological documentation increases from the Late Bronze Age onwards, and indicates a stabilization of settlement areas. Traces of a continuous human presence are visible for example in Valdieri , where a necropolis frequented during the recent and final Bronze Age has been identified in the commune: the funerary ritual there involves cremation and covering of the urn  ,  . At the beginning of the Iron Age , the population of the massif intensified, as did exchanges between communities  .

Antiquity

During Antiquity , the frequentation of the massif and the use of its passes, both by Roman and barbarian peoples , are attested by the discoveries made during archaeological excavations . The passes are used for the movement of people and goods (in particular the Col de Tende ). To the east of the massif, have been identified, among others: a paved Roman road, between Limone Piemonte and the Col de Tende  , Roman coins (found on this same pass)  , ceramics and Roman currency in the Babula burial cave, in Tende  , and a bronze Roman spoon in the town of La Brigue  . The archaeological site of the Tournerie peak is a major Gallic sanctuary ^, frequented between the 5th and 2nd ^centuries  BC . It is located in the town of Roubion . Numerous jewels and pieces of weapons were found there  . Concerning the mastery of metals, in Valdeblore for example, mines and slag deposits have been identified, testifying to iron metallurgical activity on the massif, spread between the 2nd ^century  BC  . BC and  the 7th ^century  .

The conquest and pacification of the Alpine peoples are due to the Emperor Augustus . An inscription found at Saint-Dalmas-le-Selvage testifies to this  ,   : “[…] FVLVIVS […] DEVICTIS ET SVPERATIS LIGVRIBVS VAGIENNIS VEDIANTIBVS MONTANIS ET SALLAVICIS” , which can be translated as: “(the legionary) Fulvius (… ) defeated and subdued the Ligurian (tribes) of Bagienni , Vediantii, Montani and Sallavici”. The “Montani” being a generic Latin term designating the mountain tribes  . This Alpine conquest is glorified through the Trophy of Augustus , or Trophy of the Alps, located at the foot of the massif, in La Turbie and dating from 7-6 BC. The list of the 44 Alpine peoples conquered by Rome is engraved on the monument itself, including Celto-Ligurian peoples , present in the region of the massif  .

At the end of the ^1st century  , the western and central parts of the massif were included in the Roman province of the Maritime Alps , and its eastern part was in the 9th Italian ^region .

Middle Ages

In the Middle Ages, the dominant monastic power of the massif was the San Dalmazzo da Pedona abbey , created in the 7th ^century  , and ideally located in the town of Borgo San Damazzo (formerly Pedona), at the confluence of the 3 Italian valleys of Gesso , of Stura and Vermenagna . It dominates the movement of people and goods between the Po plain and Provence  . It also has priories and possessions in neighboring French valleys, notably in Saint-Dalmas-le-Selvage  and Saint-Martin-Vésubie  .

In the 11th ^century  , the massif was part of the States of Savoy . Subsequently, between the 13th and 14th ^centuries , ^the  massif was part of the bailiff of the Val de Lantosque , the county of Ventimiglia and the county of Tende  . In the 14th ^century  , by deedition of Nice to Savoy, the county of Nice was created , of which the west and center of the massif are part.

During the Middle Ages, the massif remained an important place of passage for shepherds, on both sides of the watershed . In the 13th ^century  , we witnessed real migratory flows linked to transhumance, and in the 16th ^century  , the shepherds of Vinadio and Sambuco went to the pastures of Vésubie via the passes of the massif and vice versa. These practices united the communities and this is visible in the registers of the villages on both sides, which contain names in French on the Italian side and vice versa  .

The salt roads

In the Middle Ages , the transport of salt between France and Italy largely used the massif. On the French side, the Nice gabelle organizes the logistics, and the paths taken pass through the Paillon valleys , to reach different passes of the massif allowing access to Piedmont  : Col de Sainte-Anne, Col de Cerise , Col de Frémamorte and above all Col de Fenestre and Col de Tende . In the 16th ^century  , 800 tonnes of salt passed through the Vésubie valley annually . These “  salt roads  ” (in reality mule paths) as well as the numerous bridges they used, had to be maintained regularly, and saw a large number of merchants, porters and military troops pass through them. These activities contributed to the economic growth of the massif until ^the 19th  century  ,  .

Modern and contemporary eras

The borders within the massif

At the end of the 16th ^century  , the county of Tende was attached to the States of Savoy  . The County of Nice was already part of the States of Savoy, the massif is now entirely within the possessions of the House of Savoy . In1720, by exchange of Sicily with Sardinia , the kingdom of Sardinia was created , into which the massif shifted. THEMarch 24, 1860, the Treaty of Turin ratified the attachment of the County of Nice to France. The majority of the massif (western and central parts), until now part of the Kingdom of Sardinia, is therefore attached to France. The eastern part of the massif and the north of the Vésubie and Tinée valleys become Italian.

However, tensions between France and Italy appeared during the second half of the  19th century 129 ^,  led to a militarization of the border with the construction of the Tende works ( Fort Central , Fort Pépin , Fort Tabourde , Fort de la Marguerie , Fort Pernante , Fort de Giaure ), Breil-sur-Roya , or Authion (Trois-Communes redoubt, Fort des Mille-Fourches, Fort de la Forca )  ,  .

Development of transport infrastructure [ edit | edit code ]

The rugged topography of the massif has always made its access difficult and at the time of the annexation of the County of Nice to France , in1860, the roads which serve it are still only mule paths  . However, a major road infrastructure development program makes it possible to connect the Tinée valley to a motorable road in1870. The road also reaches the upper Vésubie valley in1877 . However, the circulation of horse-drawn carriages on these tormented roads remained impractical and in 1900 the idea of ​​connecting the French valleys of the massif to the general rail network was put forward. The work was undertaken and, from 1909 and 1912, two electric tram lines, operated by Tramways des Alpes-Maritimes (or TAM), served the Tinée and Vésubie valleys respectively. These lines were operated for around twenty years, but were loss-making and quickly competed with coaches for passenger transport, they closed respectively in1929And1931 . The closure of these lines, located along the valley roads, allows a widening of traffic lanes for the benefit of automobile transport . These road development and widening works are still continuing at the beginning of the 21st ^century  ,  .

Conquest of the massif [ edit | edit code ]

The first ascent of Mount Argentera is made from theAugust 18, 1879, by William Auguste Coolidge , accompanied by guides Christian Almer father and son  . However, at the end of the 19th ^century  , a large part of the summits of the massif were still virgin  . Between1889And1905, Victor de Cessole organized numerous ascents and their systematic documentation  These expeditions were first carried out in summer, then, from1896, Victor de Cessole tackles the mountains of the massif in winter . The southern summit of Argentera , the highest point of the massif, is thus reached for the first time in winter onJanuary 23, 1902 . Victor de Cessole made these numerous ascents accompanied by his guides, generally Jean and Jean-Baptiste Plent, but also Hippolyte Bernart in Vésubie, Charles Gallean in Tinée or Andrea Ghigo and B. Piacenza on Argentera . Among his most notable climbs are two peaks deemed inaccessible at the time: Corno Stella , reached on August 22, 1903, and the Aiguilles de Pelens , reached in August 1905 . The systematic, almost scientific documentation work of Victor de Cessole is also accompanied by an important iconographic base, with nearly 7,200 photos relating to mountain outings .

World War II [ edit | edit code ]

From theJune 10, 1940, the massif is the scene of clashes between the French Army of the Alps , and the Italian Army Group West, during the Battle of the Alps . Faced with an effective French defense, the Italian troops only gained a few hundred meters of ground on the high altitude ridges, in the Boréon and the Gordolasque . In the Roya valley , the gains are more significant with the occupation of the village of Fontan . On June 24, the armistice was signed  ,  .

The liberation of the massif took place during Operation Canard, during the Second Battle of the Alps . The goals of this operation are: recovery of the ridge lines, upper Roya, and reconquest of the Authion area . This operation, launched by General de Gaulle from Nice , during his speech onApril 9, 1945, lasts from 10 toApril 25, and saw Italian-German and French troops clash in the massif, during violent battles  . The French occupation of the Roya valley followed .

Following the Second World War , the signing of the Treaty of Paris , by transferring the border to the crest lines of the massif, ratified the transfer of Italy to France , of the north of the Vésubie and Tinée, and eastern Roya , which become French again  .

The massif since the post-war [ edit | edit code ]

In the immediate post-war period , mountain tourism experienced a significant boom. Historic winter sports resorts like Auron or Valberg are experiencing increased attendance, and new resorts are being created from scratch, like Isola 2000 , in1971 ,  . But this urbanization is not very respectful of the environment  : this awareness, in the middle of the years1970, will begin the transition towards a more environmentally friendly tourist activity  . The Mercantour National Park , in France, was created onAugust 8, 1979 and its Italian equivalent, the Alpes Maritimes natural park was created in1995 . InMay 1986, the Southern Alps , and the massif in particular, are exposed to radioactive fallout from the cloud of particles coming from the Thernobyl  power plant accident . The health and environmental impact of this pollution, mainly cesium 137 , is still studied and debated over the years.2000And2010 ,  ,  . These territories are seeing the reappearance of the wolf in France  : inNovember 1992, two gray wolves are observed by a ranger from the Mercantour national park, on the Colombrons crest, above the Mollières valley . This observation formalizes the return of the wolf to France  ,  . The environmental issue and the role of parks remained a subject of importance in the following decades, as evidenced by the debate around the controversial “Balcons du Mercantour” project and their subsequent abandonment.January 23, 2009 . In2019, an attempt to register the “Mediterranean Alps” (of which the massif is part) as a UNESCO world heritage site ended in failure  . Climatic considerations and their influences in the massif subsequently take on importance: theOctober 2, 2020, storm Alex , an exceptional climatic phenomenon, caused a heavy human and material toll in the Vésubie and Roya valleys  ,  ,  . This episode was followed by an exceptional drought a few months later, with consequences on the hydrology of the massif  ,  .

Activities [ edit | edit code ]

Agriculture [ edit | edit code ]

Historically, the massif is home to more food-producing or subsistence agriculture , which since the end of the 20th ^century has tended to move  towards a rather local market, with products with high added value or from organic farming, but whose production remains artisanal  . Agriculture is essentially non- extensive , particularly due to the dispersion of exploitable plots and the slopes  . Mechanization remains very low, particularly on the French part of the massif  .

The visual appearance of this territory is largely the historical result of agricultural exploitation. The layout of villages and pastures was often determined by their ease of exploitation: irrigation possibilities, location of trails and transhumance trails  … The landscapes of the massif are mainly made up of mountain pastures (limestone lawns, rhododendron moors , wet area ). At the beginning of the 21st ^century  , these landscapes represent a little more than 50% of the territory of the Mercantour National Park  ,  .

The herds are mainly of the meat sheep type (66%, or 120,000 sheep in 2010, the Southern Alps being traditionally oriented towards this type of breeding  ), followed by meat cattle (20%)  . Market gardening activities are present in the south of the Roya, Bévéra and Vésubie valleys (with the presence of olive groves for example, testifying to the Mediterranean influence)  . The Tinée valley and the lower Italian valleys of the massif are specifically chestnut producers  ,  , the Coni chestnut benefiting from a PGI which covers the Italian part of the massif  ,  . The commune of Entracque is renowned for its production of mountain potatoes  ,  .

Mowing activities remain modest and only cover half of local needs, with hilly terrain limiting this type of exploitation  .

On the Italian part of the massif, in the Stura valley , there is a cheese factory of local economic importance, which is also one of the largest dairy producers in the massif  .

At the beginning of the 21st ^century  , there is a contrast in the territories of the massif between sedentary agricultural activity generally subject to decline, and very dynamic high-altitude pastoralism  .

Industry [ edit | edit code ]

With the exception of hydroelectric production , the industrial sector is very little developed within the massif, due to the distance from urban centers, communication difficulties and the weakness of natural resources  ,  .

The massif does, however, have a small mining industry . On the Italian part of the massif there is the Robilante  silica production plant , and the Roaschia  limestone extraction plant . On the French part of the massif is the Courbaisse  aggregates factory .

The hydroelectric industry , on the other hand, is extremely developed within the massif, both on its French and Italian parts. It was the growing needs of the coast for electricity, at the end of the 19th ^century  and the beginning of the 20th ^century  , which led to the construction of numerous hydroelectric power stations  . In France, the Énergie Electrique du Littoral Méditerranéen (EELM) group was largely involved in this development. 14 of the 18 hydroelectric works in the Alpes-Maritimes department are located within or on the edge of the massif: they are supplied by its numerous lakes, allowing the production of 13% of the department's consumption  . In France there are notably the Bancairon , Pienne-Basse in Breil-sur-Roya  and Saint-Martin-Vésubie power stations. The latter, built in1961, produces the electricity consumption of 63,000 people annually  . On the Italian part of the massif, the Entracque hydroelectric power station , located at an altitude of 1,978  m , is the largest of the Italian hydroelectric park, and one of the largest in Europe  .

Within the Stura Valley is the Vinadio mineral water bottling plant , with a capacity of several hundred million bottles per year  ,  .

Winter sports resorts [ edit | edit code ]

The winter sports resorts of the massif welcome several million visitors each year, both local and international  , and offer several hundred kilometers of alpine ski slopes  . They have Nordic areas for cross-country skiing or snowshoeing  . At the beginning of the 21st ^century  , snow in the Southern Alps experiencing regular deficits  , most of these resorts, both in France and in Italy, use artificial snow devices, such as snow cannons  ,  . There are 10 stations in the massif:

Winter sports resorts in the Mercantour-Argentera massif

Resorts in France	Station in Italy
Auron	Argentera
Beuil	Entraque
Isola 2000	Limone Piemonte
La Colmiane	Bagni di Vinadio
Valberg
Le Sauze

Ski touring [ edit | edit code ]

The massif, renowned for ski touring  , offers more than 400 routes  . Most outings are carried out during the day, although raids over several days are possible, thanks to the presence of numerous winter shelters. The ideal period for ski touring is from December to May or June, depending on the routes and snow conditions  .

Hiking [ edit | edit code ]

The massif welcomes several hundred thousand hikers each year  . The Mercantour National Park , located within the massif, maintains 1,700  km of hiking trails, including 550  km in the central area of ​​the park  . In the Italian part of the massif, the Maritime Alps natural park is covered by 400  km  of hiking trails. The massif is notably crossed by the GR 5 and GR 52 trails . The great crossing of the Alps (or GTA) also constitutes a segment of the GR 5 which takes the massif on its French part, its equivalent on the Italian part of the massif being the Grande Traversata delle Alpi . The “blue” and “red” routes of the Via Alpina also pass through the massif.

Itineraries of all levels are therefore possible in the massif, most of which can be done in a day  , and the longest, such as the Grande traversee du Mercantour (or GTM)  ,  , requiring more than two weeks.

Mountaineering [ edit | edit code ]

Many rock or mixed climbing routes exist in the massif. The relatively modest altitude of the peaks and the presence of numerous refuges most of the time allow these routes to be undertaken as a day trip. On the French part of the massif alone, in an area located between Mont Malinvern and Mont Bégo , nearly 1,100 different races are listed  . Added to these, among others, are the hundreds of races offered by the Argentera range, on the Italian part of the  massif .

The routes are a mixture of historic routes, opened by pioneers in the exploration of this territory, such as Victor de Cessole  , and large-scale routes, opened by great names in mountaineering , such as Jean Vernet  , Patrick Berhault  or Alessandro Gogna  or more modern and often technical routes, some of which opened in the 2010s  ,  .

The tracks of the massif were the subject of a re-equipment campaign in the years2000, carried by a group of local guides, leading to the installation of permanent “spit” type fixations, in certain passages  ,  .

Cycling [ edit | edit code ]

The Tour de France has regularly used the passes of the massif since1950, and the Mercan'Tour Classic Alpes-Maritimes is a road cycling race organized since2020around Valberg . This municipality has also since2005a mountain bike race called the “Enduro des Portes du Mercantour”  . Until2015took place within the Prom' Gélas massif , a race combining road cycling from the seaside, then ski touring to the summit of Gélas  . Within the massif, it is also possible to practice mountain biking, out of season, in several winter sports resorts  ,  . However, mountain biking in the protected areas of the Mercantour and Alpes Maritimes parks is generally heavily regulated  ,  .  .

Accommodation [ edit | edit code ]

More than twenty mountain refuges  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  ,  welcome visitors, including:

Shelters in France

In the Roya valley	In the Vésubie valley	In the Tinée valley
Valmasque refuge	Refuge of the Madonna de Fenestre	Vens Refuge
Refuge of Wonders	Cougourde Refuge	Rabuons Refuge
Fontanalbe refuge	Nice shelter	Longon Refuge
	Adus Refuge	Gialorgues refuge
	Maïris Refuge
	Saladin Refuge

Shelters in Italy

In the Gesso valley	In the Stura Valley
Remondino Refuge	Migliorero Refuge
Bozano Refuge	Zanotti Refuge
Questa Refuge	Refuge Prati del Vallone
Federici-Marchesini al Pagari Refuge	Becchi Rossi Refuge
Genova-Figari Refuge	Malinvern Hut
Elena Shelter	Laus refuge
Ellena-Soria Refuge
Morelli-Buzzi Refuge
Livio-Bianco Refuge
Valasco Refuge

Environmental protection

The first “environmental” considerations relating to the massif arise from fishing or hunting issues . Particularly destructive fishing methods, attested from the 17th ^century  and preventing the fish from reproducing, were responsible for significant damage, particularly in Roya . In response, the public authorities of the County of Nice banned trout fishing during the spawning period from1669 . In the middle of the 19th ^century  , Victor-Emmanuel II , a great hunter, noticed a decrease in the populations of chamois and ibexes in the massif. He was the first to create a “royal hunting reserve” there, theDecember 26, 1859 . However, ibex populations continue to decline, reaching extinction in the Southern Alps . A reintroduction campaignon the Italian part of the massif was launched between1920And1932, using 25 individuals taken from the Gran Paradiso massif  ,  . THEJuly 30, 1947is created on the French side, by decree , the “ Boréon hunting reserve  ”, covering 3,500  ha in the commune of Saint-Martin-Vésubie  . In1949, the “ Valdieri - Entracque ” hunting reserve  , of more than 20,000  ha , was created by the Italian authorities  . In1979the Riserva del Bosco e dei Laghi di Palanfré is created , and, in1980, the Parco naturale dell'Argentera , both being located on the Italian part of the massif  . The merger of these two parks gives birth, in1995, at the Parco naturale delle Alpi Marittime , covering an area of   km ^2,269 . Concerning the French part of the massif, the Mercantour national park, covering several hundred square kilometers, was created onAugust 18, 1979. Despite these initiatives to protect animal populations, the number of ibex remains low, reintroduction campaigns are taking place in1987And1989in the Mercantour park. Between1986And2015, the bearded vulture is also the subject of annual reintroduction campaigns, through releases in French and Italian parks, alternately  . This geographical and political proximity of the French parks of Mercantour, and the Italian parks of the Maritime Alps allows the creation,June 6, 2013, the first European natural park  . At the beginning of the 21st ^century  , light pollution increasing rapidly  and dark sky reserves gaining importance for biodiversity  , the Mercantour park obtained, after nine months of application  inDecember 2019, the “international dark sky reserve” (RICE)  label , awarded by the international Dark Sky association . Then quickly, theSeptember 4, 2021, the third integral reserve in France was created on the site of Roche Grande , on the territory of the commune of Entraunes   : with an area of ​​approximately 500  ha  , it is located on the western limit of the massif. On the French side, the massif has also been protected under the birds directive since1988 and under the habitat directive since1996 . Finally, since2002, barbed wire cleaning campaigns are organized by the Mountain Wilderness association . These installations, which were deployed on the Franco-Italian border during the armed conflicts of the 20th ^century  , are a danger for the fauna of the massif  .

In popular culture

Paintings

The Mercantour-Argentera massif has inspired several painters over the centuries. In the 19th ^century , Claude Monet produced various oils on canvas representing the massif seen from Antibes  and Cyrille Besset produced paintings of Saint-Martin-Vésubie and Roya in the village of Fontan  . Different watercolorists also represented the places: Alexis Mossa , with works of Boréon , Haut-Boréon, as well as Gordolasque or Antoine Trachel, with representations of Tende and Roquebilière  . Albert Thiole also represented the Boréon  and Jules Defer the Gordolasque torrent, in charcoal  . At the end of the 19th century ^and the beginning of the 20th ^century , Pierre Comba , in several of his watercolors, depicted battalions of Alpine hunters evolving within the  massif . Alban Larousse  and Michel Rohmer  in the 20th century ^then Alexis Nouailhat  ,  in the 21st century ^, produced numerous watercolors representing the massif, as well as its fauna and flora.

Cinema and television

In the Gordolasque , the upper valley serves as settings for the series Belle et Sébastien  , or for the film Sauvage , by Jean-François Amiguet  . The village of Belvédère , for its part, serves as the setting for the first scenes of the film Le Gendarme de Saint-Tropez , with Louis de Funès  .

The Vésubie valley also appears in the film Le Cas du Docteur Laurent , with Jean Gabin , filmed in the villages of Saint-Martin-Vésubie and Venanson  . Higher in the valley, the diffusion ofSeptember 26, 1965of the program En vue direct de… , produced by Jacques Ertaud , takes place on the west face of Cougourde , with the mountaineers Jean Grinda, Jean-Marie Morisset, Gaston Rébuffat and Maurice Baquet  ,  .

In the Roya valley , the film La Fille sur le pont , with Daniel Auteuil and Vanessa Paradis , is directed by Patrice Lecomte partly in the area of ​​the village of Breil-sur-Roya  .

And more generally in the massif: Minuscule: The Valley of the Lost Ants is an animated film with live-action settings using the landscapes of the Mercantour  park . The mountain of stories is a film resulting from exchanges with inhabitants of the valleys of the massif, produced on the occasion of the 40th anniversary of the Mercantour park  ,  .

In the documentary category, Naïs in the land of wolves was filmed by a father and his daughter over three years, going to meet the wolf in the heart of the Mercantour park  ,  and Face au vide , produced in2020, highlights amateur mountaineering, and is partly carried out within the  massif .

On television, The Upside-Down Man is an adaptation of the eponymous novel by Fred Vargas , set in the massif, and the show Roots and Wings devotes episodes 19 of its season 16 and 9 of its season 25 partly to the massif and its communes  ,  .

Music

“Les Follies des Lacs” is an annual music festival, created in2001by the mayor of Valdeblore  , in which the pianist François-René Duchâble  regularly participates , and having the characteristic of taking place at the edge of the lakes of the massif. Julien Doré composed his album & in a chalet in Saint-Martin-Vésubie  , and recorded an acoustic version of Coco cuddle in the mountains of the massif  .

Literature

Nice and Savoy , work commissioned by Napoleon III and published in1864, contains lithographs representing the departments newly attached to France in1860, and more particularly from different villages of the massif  ,  . La Suisse Nice , a collection of the writings of Victor de Cessole and Fernand Noetinger, traces the history of the conquest of the massif  . Jean Siccardi , a writer from Nice, depicts two shepherd brothers in the heart of the massif, in his book The Mists of Mercantour  . Alain Grinda's novel Madonna de Fenestre takes place partly within the massif, in the area of ​​the sanctuary of the Madonna de Fenestre  . Still in the category of novels, Étoile errante , a work by JMG Le Clézio , takes place partly in Saint-Martin-Vésubie  and L'Homme à l'envers , a detective novel by Fred Vargas , takes place in the park of Mercantour  . Finally, Mercantour, the spirit of the place by Olivier Lemire offers a photographic journey within the  massif .